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Parshvanatha, or Parsva and Parasanatha, was the twenty-third Tirthankara of the current era. He was born in Benaras (modern-day Varanasi) and was the spiritual successor of the twenty-second Tirthankara Neminath, a prominent figure in Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he lived millions of years ago, in an era when human life was much longer than it is today and is described as having been born into a royal family and renouncing worldly life in pursuit of spiritual enlightenment.
The Tirthankaras, including Neminath, are revered by Jain followers as spiritual guides and examples to be followed on their journey towards liberation from the cycle of birth and death, achieving the state of moksha, or final liberation.
Jainism
Jainism is a religion from India whose doctrine revolves around Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings. It was supposedly founded in the 6th century BCE by Mahavira, the last Tirthankara (crossing maker, savior). The two main branches, Digambara and Svetambara, encourage Shramana (self-discipline, self-sufficiency) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progress to the final goal.
It is a Nastika (non-theistic) religion, which does not recognize the authority of the Vedic or Brahmin texts. Astika and Nastika are two Sanskrit terms used to classify doctrines and people from the perspective of Hinduism. Astika (orthodox) is the term used within Hinduism to refer to doctrines that accept the authority of Hindu texts (Upanishads and Puranas) as supreme, revealed, and irrefutable scriptures. Nastika (heterodox), on the other hand, is a term used in Hinduism to refer to philosophical schools and religious movements that do not accept the authority of the Four Vedas (non-philosophical epic texts) as the ultimate truth, revealed or otherwise.
Digambaras and Svetambaras
The Digambaras believe there was no difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the basis of the dispute between the two sects. According to the Svetambaras, Mahavira expanded Parshvanatha's initial four restraints with his ideas on Ahimsa and added celibacy, the fifth monastic vow. He did not require celibacy and allowed monks to wear simple external garments. Svetambara texts, such as section 2.15 of the Acharanga Sutra, state that Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshvanatha, linking Mahavira to a preexisting theology as a reformer of the Jain mendicant tradition.
It is said that Parshvanatha established four of the five Mahavratas or great vows of Jain asceticism, namely Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), and Aparigraha (non-possession). Parshvanatha is popular among worshippers in central, western, and southern India, and his life remains intertwined with myths and legends.
Who was Parshvanatha
Parshvanatha was the first Tirthankara with historical evidence, but these evidence are intricately intertwined with legend. Other Tirthankaras mentioned in Jain writings cannot be considered historical figures. According to Jain belief, each cosmic age produces its own group of twenty-four Tirthankaras, the earliest of whom (if it's an age of decreasing purity) were giants who diminished in stature and appeared at shorter intervals of time as the age progressed.
Parshvanatha is commonly seen as a propagator and reviver of Jainism and is the only Tirthankara who has been given the title of Kalīkālkalpataru, a Sanskrit term that can be translated as Wish-Fulfilling Tree of the Iron Age, a metaphor describing an imaginary tree that grants all wishes during the so-called Iron Age (Kali Yuga). According to Hindu mythology, he was the first exponent of the philosophy of Karma in recorded history. According to Jainism, he was a savior who successfully crossed the river of life's rebirths and paved a path for others to follow. Jain sources place him between the 9th and 8th centuries BC, while historians consider that he lived in the 8th or 7th century BC.
In Hindu cosmology, time is divided into four ages or Yugas: Satya Yuga (Age of Truth), Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga, and Kali Yuga, considered the darkest age, characterized by moral decay, corruption, violence, and spiritual disintegration. In this period, people are distant from spiritual values, and there is a prevalence of selfishness and materialism.
The image of the Wish-Fulfilling Tree of the Iron Age is a way to illustrate how, even during the challenging times of Kali Yuga, humans continue to seek material satisfaction and pursue their worldly desires. However, according to Hindu philosophy, true happiness and spiritual fulfillment can only be attained through the pursuit of higher values and connection with the divine, not through the incessant pursuit of material pleasures.
This metaphor is often used in Indian religious and literary texts to convey a message about the cyclical nature of time and the importance of maintaining faith and devotion even in times of spiritual darkness. "It is said that Parshvanatha attained Moksha on Mount Sammeda (Madhuban, Jharkhand), popularly known as Parasnath Hill in the Ganges basin, an important Jain pilgrimage site. Renouncing worldly life, he founded an ascetic community. Moksha is the Jiva withdraws his karma, expresses its freedom and has a pure and intrinsic quality of perfect knowledge in its true form.
According to Paul Dundas, Jain texts like section 31 of the Isibhasiyam provide circumstantial evidence that he lived in ancient India. Paul Dundas is a British scholar and author specializing in Jain studies. He is widely recognized for his significant contributions to the field of Jainism studies. He is best known for his book The Jains, a comprehensive introduction to Jainism, its history, beliefs, practices, literature, and socio-cultural development.
Historians like Hermann Jacobi (1850-1937) accepted him as a historical figure because his Chaturyama Dharma (Four Vows) is mentioned in Buddhist texts like the Manorathapurani, a commentary on the Anguttara Nikaya, crucial for interpreting and understanding the Buddha's discourses. The Anguttara Nikaya, composed by Buddhaghosa in the 5th century, is one of the five main collections of the Sutta Pitaka in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. It consists of short discourses organized numerically, where the Buddha's teachings are presented in numbered groups and provides detailed explanations, historical contexts, and philosophical interpretations that enrich the understanding of Buddhist teachings.
Hermann Jacobi was a German Indologist, renowned for his significant contributions to the study of Indian languages and religions, especially Jainism and Hinduism. He is best known for his translations and critical studies of Jain and Vedic texts.
Buddhaghosa was an eminent Buddhist monk and scholar who lived in India in the 5th century AD. He is best known for his work as a commentator and exegete of Buddhist scriptures, especially the teachings contained in the Tripitaka, the collection of Buddhist teachings. Although most of his works were written in Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, his contributions had a significant impact on various Buddhist traditions around the world. Buddhaghosa is remembered as one of the great masters and thinkers of Buddhism, whose work continues to be a source of inspiration and guidance for Buddhist practitioners worldwide.
Vappa, the Buddha's uncle, was one of the five ascetics, along with Assaji, Bhaddiya, Kondañña, and Mahanama, who practiced rigorous austerities alongside Siddhartha Gautama before he became the Buddha. Although not a major figure in the Anguttara Nikaya, he is mentioned in several Buddhist traditions.
Parshvanatha and Mahavira
It is said that Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE) preceded Mahavira by about 250 years, the most recent Tirthankara, who, according to tradition, died in 527 BC. One text claims that Mahavira's parents followed the teachings of Parshvanatha, but there is no evidence that Mahavira formally joined any religious order founded by this teacher.
The four vows
Parshvanatha established the quadruple restraint, the four vows taken by his followers (not to take life, steal, lie, or possess property) which, with Mahavira's addition of the vow of celibacy, became the five "great vows" (mahavratas) of Jain ascetics. While Parshvanatha allowed monks to wear an upper and lower garment, Mahavira completely gave up dressing. According to tradition, the two sets of views were reconciled by a disciple of each of the Tirthankaras, with Parshvanatha's followers accepting Mahavira's reforms.
Parshvanatha's life before renunciation
Parshvanatha was born on the tenth day of the dark half of the Hindu month of Pausha, the son of King Ashwasena and Queen Vamadevi of Varanasi. Parshvanatha belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty. Before his birth, Jain texts claim that he ruled as the god Indra in the thirteenth heaven of Jain cosmology. While he was in the mother's womb, the gods performed the garbha-kalyana (animation of the fetus).
His mother had fourteen or sixteen auspicious dreams, an indicator in the Jain tradition that a Tirthankara was about to be born. According to Jain texts, the thrones of the Indras trembled when he was born, and the Indras descended to earth to celebrate his janma-kalyanaka (auspicious birth).
At the age of eight, he began practicing the twelve basic duties of the adult Jain household head. He lived as a prince and soldier in Varanasi. Temples in Bhelupur were built to commemorate Parshvanatha's three kalyanakas. German Indologist
Heinrich Zimmer (1890-1943), recognized for his contributions to the study of Indian mythology and philosophy, translated a Jain text indicating that Parshvanatha, at sixteen, refused to marry when his father suggested. He entered the practice of meditations realizing that the "soul is its only friend."
Life after renunciation
At the age of thirty, on the eleventh day of the bright moon in the month of Pausha (December/January), Parshvanatha renounced the world to become a monk after seeing the image of Neminatha, also known as Nemi or Arishtanemi, a representation of the twenty-second Tirthankara in Jainism. Iconographic representations of Neminatha follow specific traditions reflecting Jain iconography. Under a dhaataki tree, he meditated for eighty-four days before attaining Kevala Jnana (omniscience), believed to be in Ahichchhatra near the Naras. His period of meditation included asceticism and strict vows.
Parshvanatha's practices included careful movements, measured speech, cautious desires, mental restraint, and physical activity, essential in Jain tradition for renouncing the ego. According to Jain texts, lions and deer played around him during his asceticism.
According to Vividha Tirtha Kalpa, an important Jain text written by Acharya Jinaprabha Suri in the 14th century, Kamath is a significant figure in Jainism, particularly known for his connection to Parshvanatha. Kamath caused continuous rain, attempting to prevent Parshvanatha from attaining Kevala Jnana, a Sanskrit term translating to Pure Knowledge or Absolute Knowledge.
It refers to a state of total and absolute knowledge and understanding attained by an enlightened being, known as a Kevalin or Siddha. Parshvanatha stood immersed in water up to his neck. To protect him, the serpent god Dharanendra held a canopy of a thousand hoods over his head, and the goddess Padmavati coiled around his body.
Ahichchhatra Jain temples are built to commemorate Parshvanatha's conquest of Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka. On the fourteenth day of the waning moon cycle in the month of Chaitra (March-April), Parshvanatha attained omniscience. Celestial beings built for him a samavasarana (preaching hall), so he could share his knowledge with his followers.
After preaching for seventy years, Parshvanatha attained Moksha at Shikharji on Parasnath Hill at the age of one hundred on Shravana Shukla Saptami referring to the seventh day of the first half of the month of Shravana, when the moon is in its waxing phase. Moksha is a Sanskrit term meaning "liberation" or "release." In the spiritual and philosophical tradition of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, Moksha represents liberation from the cycle of rebirth (Samsara), thereby achieving a state of transcendence and spiritual freedom.
In Hinduism, it is often considered the ultimate goal of human existence, where the soul (Atman) breaks free from the bonds of the physical world and merges with the cosmic divinity (Brahman). In Buddhism, the concept is similar, though it is more commonly referred to as Nirvana, representing the cessation of suffering and illusion. In Jain tradition, Parshvanath's Moksha is celebrated as Moksha Saptami.
Previous Lives
Jain mythology contains legends about Parshvanatha's human and animal rebirths and the maturation of his soul towards inner harmony, like legends found in other Indian religions. His rebirths include:
Marubhuti - Vishwabhuti, Prime Minister of King Aravinda. He had two sons, the elder being Kamath and the younger Marubhuti (Parshvanatha). Kamath committed adultery with Marubhuti's wife. The king learned of the adultery and asked Marubhuti how his brother should be punished; Marubhuti suggested forgiveness. Kamath went into a forest, became an ascetic, and acquired demonic powers for revenge. Marubhuti went into the forest to invite his brother back home, but Kamath killed him by crushing him with a stone. Marubhuti was one of Parshvanatha's early rebirths.
Vajraghosha (thunder) - he was reborn as an elephant because of the "violence of death and the distressing thoughts he harbored at the time of his previous death". Vajraghosha lived in the forests of Vindyachal. Kamath was reborn as a serpent. King Aravinda, after the death of his minister's son, renounced the throne and led an ascetic life. When a furious Vajraghosha approached Aravinda, the ascetic saw that the elephant was the reincarnated Marubhuti.
Aravinda asked the elephant to forsake "sinful acts, remove its past misdeeds, realize that harming other beings is the greatest sin, and begin practicing the vows." The elephant realized its mistake, calmed down, and bowed at Aravinda's feet. One day, when Vajraghosha went to a river to drink water, the serpent Kamath bit him. He died peacefully this time and free from distressing thoughts.
Sasiprabha - Vajraghosha - reincarnated as Sashiprabha (Lord of the Moon) in the twelfth heaven, surrounded by abundant pleasures. Sashiprabha, however, did not let the pleasures distract him and continued his ascetic life.
Agnivega - Sashiprabha - died and was reborn as Prince Agnivega (strength of fire). After becoming king, he met a sage who spoke to him about the impermanence of all things and the meaning of a spiritual life. Agnivega realized the importance of religious activities, and his worldly life lost its charm. He renounced to lead an ascetic life, joining the sage's monastic community. He meditated in the Himalayas, reducing his attachment to the external world. He was bitten by a snake (the reincarnated Kamath), but the venom did not disturb his inner peace, and he calmly accepted his death.
He was reborn as a god with a life of "twenty-two oceans of years," and the serpent went to the sixth hell. The soul of Marubhuti-Vajraghosa-Sasiprabha-Agnivega was reborn as Parshvanatha. He saved the serpents from torture and death during that life; the serpent god Dharanendra and the goddess Padmavati protected him and are part of his iconography.
Iconography
It is believed that Parshvanatha may have the power to remove obstacles and save devotees. In the Svetambara tradition, there are 108 prominent idols of Parshvanath. They derive their names from geographic regions, such as Shankheshwar Parshvanath and Panchasara Parshvanath.
Parshvanatha is typically depicted in a lotus posture or kayotsarga. Statues and paintings show his head protected by a multi-headed serpent, spread out like an umbrella. The emblem of Parshvanatha's snake is carved (or stamped) under his legs as an icon identifier. His iconography is usually accompanied by Dharnendra and Padmavati, the snake god and goddess of Jainism.
Snakes and Serpents
Parshvanatha is closely associated with serpents, with the snake being his emblem. Legends say that at the time of his birth, his mother dreamed of a black serpent passing through her. In another version, it is said she dreamed of herself lying on a seat of serpents. In sculpture and painting, he is always identified by a canopy of snake hoods over his head.
According to accounts in the Jain text Kalpa-sutra, Parshvanatha once saved a serpent that had become trapped in a log in an ascetic's fire. The serpent, later reborn as Dharana, the lord of the underground kingdom of nagas (serpents), sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm sent by a demon.
In sculpture, we not only find snakes in the usual place of the symbol, but also find snakes covering it with three, seven, or eleven hoods. His Yakṣa is called Parśva or Vamana or Dharaṇendra and Yakṣiṇī is called Padmāvatī. Yakṣa is a class of spiritual beings found in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism mythology and religion, in Indian traditions.
They are often portrayed as god-like beings, guardians of nature, wealth, and treasures. In Hindu mythology, Yakṣas are considered semi-divine beings associated with fertility, prosperity, and abundance. They are often depicted in Indian temples, often portrayed as corpulent, smiling figures adorned with jewels and holding symbols of wealth. The king, who is by his side as a bearer of Chowri, is known as Ajitarāja. The Devadaru (Deodar) or Dhātaki is his Kevala tree.
The snake hoods
Based on legends, Parshvanatha is characteristically depicted with a snake hood above his head. Images of him sometimes feature Dharanendra and his queen Padmavati, both shown as snakes. Serpent symbolism is also typical in images of Suparshvanatha, the seventh Tirthankara; a five-headed serpent crowns his images.
Images of Parshvanatha are commonly distinguished by a seven-headed snake and the icon of a snake located at the foot of the figure. The multi-headed snake is a standard feature of Parshvanatha, despite differences in how the two sects of Jainism, Digambara and Shwetambara, portray him and his teachings. Another feature of Parshvanatha, and Tirthankaras in general, is the Shrivatsa, one of the eight auspicious symbols of Jainism, which is usually found on the chest of the image.
Statues of both Tirthankaras with snake hoods have been found in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, dating back to the 5th to 10th centuries BC. The earliest images of Parshvanatha with seven snakes over his head date from the 1st century BC. Archaeological sites and medieval iconography of Parshvanatha found in temples and caves include scenes and Yakshas.
The Digambara and Svetambara iconography differ; Svetambara art shows Parshvanatha with a snake hood and a Yaksha resembling Ganesha, while Digambara art depicts him with a snake hood and Dhranendra. According to Umakant Premanand Shah, Hindu gods like Ganesha, Yaksha, and Indra serving Parshvanatha designated them to a subordinate position.
The Parsvanatha ayagapata, an architectural structure found in Jain temples and a specific type of monument associated with the worship of Parsvanatha. A Ayagapata from around the 15th century before Christ excavated at Kankali Tila is a tablet of tribute dedicated to Parshvanatha. The tablet depicts Parshvanatha in the center surrounded by lotus branches. He is portrayed in Dhyana Mudra with crossed ankles in a lotus position, seated on a pedestal with a seven-hooded Sesha hood above his head and Shrivatsa on the chest.
The term Ayagapata refers to a stone pedestal or platform where an image of the Tirthankara is placed for worship and veneration by the faithful. These structures are common in Jain temples and are usually located in worship halls or specific areas reserved for spiritual contemplation.
The worship of Tirthankaras, including Parsvanatha, is a central practice in Jainism. Devotees reverence and honor these spiritual figures as examples of spiritual enlightenment and ethical conduct. The Ayagapata is a place where devotees can focus on their devotions and spiritual practices, offering them a physical platform to express their faith and devotion. The Kahaum pillar, erected in 460 AC during the reign of Skandagupta in the Gupta Empire, bears an inscription that is a worship to Arihant and features a sculpture of Parshvanatha.
Representations of Parshvanatha
Parshvanatha is depicted in various mediums and sizes in temples, shrines, bronze images, manuscripts, paintings, hero stones, Ayagapatas or carved votive stone tablets, and Panchatirthas, so called because they represent five figures. The earliest archaeological evidence of images of Parshvanatha was found at Kankali Tila in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh.
These sculptures are dated from the 1st century BC, though historians differ in their opinions on this estimate. Other images of Parshvanatha from this period depict him in Ayagapatas. Another significant stylistic representation of the Jinas in Mathura is the Sarvatobhadra, which feature four Tirthankaras, including Parshvanatha facing the four cardinal directions.
Sarvatobhadrikas portray the Jinas delivering their first sermons at the Samavasarana after enlightenment, which justifies them facing all four directions. Over time, the convention of such polytheistic representations of Tirthankaras would give way to monotheistic representations.
Images of Parshvanatha
Images of Parshvanatha typically depict him seated in padmasana or standing in the kayotsarga pose. He is commonly attended by Yakshas, and in images from the Kushana period, by other tutelary figures such as monks, nuns, laypeople, and celestial beings. Portraits of Dharanendra and Padmavati protecting Parshvanatha from Kamatha's wrath are also found in Digambara sect images.
This narrative can be seen in Aihole (6th century), the caves of Badami, Ellora (8th century), and in various instances in the Madurai district in Tamil Nadu (8th and 10th centuries). Other large, unique, independent sculptures of Parshvanatha are housed in Basadis or temples in Shravanabelagola and Halebidu in Karnataka, as well as in Madhya Pradesh. Parshvanatha also appears in hero stones at various locations in Karnataka.
Other representations of Parshvanatha
Other representations of Parshvanatha can be found in Panchatirthis. Parshvanatha occurs as the central figure in such images, flanked by other Jinas, and with smaller celestial figures, such as the Navagrahas, or the nine celestial bodies.
Additionally, the Kalpasutra also contains illustrations of Parshvanatha, along with several other Jain manuscripts and scrolls, which were popular from the 11th century to the early 19th century in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and even in Karnataka. In such texts, Parshvanatha is depicted sitting or standing in meditation, with snakes sometimes coiled around his limbs or protecting his head.
Today, Parshvanatha remains a central figure in ritual practice and pilgrimage. Some of the deity's most popular temples are Shankeshvara in Gujarat, the Parshvanatha Temple in Madhya Pradesh, Raktapura and Parshvanatha Basadi in Karnataka, and Godiji in Sindh. With a pan-Indian presence, the deity is worshiped and revered by both Digambaras and Shvetambaras.
In literature
The Kalpa Sūtra contains biographies of the Tirthankaras Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Uvasagharam Stotra is an ode to Parshvanatha written by Bhadrabahu. The Mahapuraṇa of Jinasena includes Adi Purāṇa and Uttarapurana. It was completed by Jinasena's 8th-century disciple Gunabhadra. Adi Puraṇa describes the lives of Rishabhanatha, Bahubali, and Bharata. Jinsena's Parshvabhyudaya is a narrative of Parshvanatha's life. Bhayahara Stotra, composed by Acharya Manatunga in the 7th century, is a worship of Parshvanatha. Sankhesvara Stotram is a hymn to Parshvanatha compiled by Mahopadhyaya Yashovijaya. Shankheshwar Parshvanath Stavan, a hymn dedicated to Shankheshwar Parshvanath, is one of the most performed Jain prayers.
Pasanaha-chairu is a hagiography of Parshvanatha composed by Shridhara in 1132 AC. Parshvanath Bhavaantar is a kirtan (devotional song), compiled by Gangadas in 1690 AC, which narrates the life of the nine previous births. The medieval forty-four verse hymn Kalyanamandira stotra, composed by Digambar Kumudachandra, is a praise of Parshvanatha and is popular among Digambaras and Shvetambaras. Parshvanatha charite is a poem composed by Shantikirt Muni in 1730 DC, which narrates the seven Siddhis of Parshvanatha.
Teachings
The texts of the two main Jain sects, Digambara and Svetambara, have different views on the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira, which underlie disputes between the sects. Digambaras claim there is no difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. According to the Svetambaras, Mahavira expanded the scope of Parshvanatha's first four restraints with his ideas on Ahimsa (non-violence) and added the fifth monastic vow (celibacy) to ascetic practice. Parshvanatha did not require celibacy and allowed monks to wear simple outer clothes.
According to the Svetambara tradition, Parshvanatha and the ascetic community he founded exercised a quadruple restraint; Mahavira stipulated five great vows for his ascetic initiation. This difference and its rationale have been frequently discussed in Svetambara texts.
A Svetambara text, the Sutra Uttardhyayana, describes Kesin Dalbhya as a follower of Parshvanatha and Indrabhuti Gautama as a disciple of Mahavira and discusses which doctrine is true, the quadruple restraint or the five great vows. Gautama says there are external differences, and these differences occur "because the moral and intellectual capacities of the followers of the vaus makers differed".
According to Wendy Doniger, Parshvanatha allowed monks to wear clothes; Mahavira recommended naked asceticism, a practice that has been a significant difference between the Digambara and Svetambara traditions. Wendy Doniger is a renowned American scholar and writer specializing in religious studies and Hinduism. She is a professor of the History of Religions at the University of Chicago, where she has taught for many years, and the author of numerous books on religion, mythology, and culture, focused on Hinduism. Her academic approach is interdisciplinary, incorporating literary, anthropological, historical, and philosophical studies into her analysis of religious traditions.
The "less than five vows" view of the Svetambara texts is not accepted by the Digambaras, a tradition whose canonical texts have been lost and who do not accept the Svetambara texts as canonical. The Digambaras have considerable literature, however, which explains their disagreement with the Svetambara interpretations.
Prafulla Modi rejects the theory of differences between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Champat Rai Jain writes that the Svetambara texts insist on celibacy for their monks (the fifth vow in Mahavira's teachings), and there should have been no difference between the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Champat Rai Jain was a prominent leader and educator in the 20th-century Jainist movement, particularly in India. He played a significant role in promoting and preserving Jainism's teachings and values, as well as in education and social service.
Padmanabh Jaini writes that the Digambaras interpret "quadruple" as referring "not to four specific vows," but to "four modalities" (which were adapted by Mahavira into five vows). Western studies and some Indian studies "have essentially been Svetambara studies" and have largely ignored the Digambara literature related to the controversy over the teachings of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Padmanabh Jaini is a renowned scholar and academic in the field of Jain studies, known for his significant contributions to the understanding and interpretation of Jainism's history, philosophy, and literature.
Paul Dundas writes that medieval Jain literature, such as that of the 9th-century Silanka, suggests that the practices of "not using another person's property without their explicit permission" and celibacy were interpreted as part of non-possession.
Disciples
According to the Kalpa Sutra (a Svetambara text), Parshvanatha had 164,000 sravakas (male lay followers), 327,000 sravikas (female lay followers), 16,000 sadhus (monks), and 38,000 sadhvis or aryikas (nuns). According to the Svetambara tradition, he had eight ganadharas (chief monks): Subhadatta, Aryaghoṣa, Vasiṣṭha, Brahmacari, Soma, Sridhara, Vīrabhadra, and Yasas. After his death, the Svetambara believe that Subhadatta became the head of the monastic order and was succeeded by Haridatta, Āryasamudra, and Keśī.
According to the Digambara tradition (including the Avasyaka niryukti), Parshvanatha had 10 ganadharas, and Svayambhu was their leader. Svetambara texts such as the Samavayanga and Kalpa Sutras cite Pushpakula as the chief aryika of his female followers, but the Digambara text Tiloyapannati identifies her as Suloka or Sulocana. The Nirgrantha (unfettered) monastic tradition of Parshvanatha was influential in ancient India, with Mahavira's parents being part of it as lay householders who supported the ascetics.
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