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Nagarjuna, an Indian Buddhist philosopher from the second century AD, is widely recognized as the greatest thinker after the Buddha. He was instrumental in founding the Madhyamika School, a pillar of Mahayana Buddhist thought. Fundamental Verses of the Middle Path (Mula-Madhyamaka-karaka) is his most important and essential work in Buddhist literature, as it deeply analyzes the doctrine of emptiness (Shunyata).
Nagarjuna is often associated with the serpent Naga, which symbolizes his connection with the mystical aspects of Buddhist tradition. His move from a Brahmin family to monastic life as a Buddhist monk in Nalanda reflects an intense spiritual quest and significant philosophical contributions.
His work Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way is central to Buddhist studies and has inspired numerous commentaries in several Asian languages. At first, his philosophy was misinterpreted and considered nihilistic. Scholars later recognized it as sophisticated and comparable to the ideas of European thinkers.
Historical Context
India in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD was politically divided into several states, including the Kushan Empire and the Satavahana Kingdom. At that time, the Buddhist community was already divided into several schools and spread throughout India. There was also a small, nascent Mahayana movement. Mahayana ideas were defended by a minority of Buddhists at that time. As Joseph Walser writes, "Mahayana before the fifth century was largely invisible. It probably existed only as a minority and largely unrecognized movement within the fold of Nikaya Buddhism."
Joseph Walser is a scholar specializing in religious studies, with a particular focus on Mahayana Buddhism and Nagarjuna. He is an associate professor in the Department of Religion at Tufts University. Walser is known for his significant contributions to the understanding of Mahayana Buddhism and the historical and cultural context in which this tradition developed.
Nagarjuna and the Origin of Logic
When thinking about Aristotle or Parmenides, logic is mentioned, crediting the paternity of the discipline to European thinkers and their disciples. Less well known is the development of logic in India, where dialectical "tournaments" were common, although little is known about their exact context—religious, political, intellectual, or recreational.
Ascetics and scholars spread across the Indian subcontinent, with meetings often sponsored by princes and sovereigns. Among the most famous was the philosopher Gargi Vachaknavi, whose debates took place while Homer in Greece had barely composed the Iliad. These encounters fueled the development of dialectics, oratory, and logic for centuries.
These debates transformed dialectics and oratory into displays of beauty and temperance, leading to the emergence of several schools that studied reality through words, considered sacred. Influenced by this rich philosophical environment, Nagarjuna demonstrated the Indian idea that thought, and action must be united. As a Buddhist, he believed that his life under the precepts of Gautama Buddha should enrich his philosophical reflection by integrating spiritual thought and practice.
Life of Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna lived between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, but his life is historically uncertain. Chinese and Tibetan hagiographies, written centuries later, are his main biographical sources, but they are not verifiable. Joseph Walser suggests that Nagarjuna may have been an advisor to a king of the Satavahana dynasty, Yajna Srī Sātakarṇi, in the second century, based on evidence from Amaravati.
Hagiography is the study or writing about the lives of saints and venerated religious figures, with the aim of celebrating their virtues, miracles and works in favor of faith. Traditionally, these narratives are used to inspire and edify the faithful, highlighting the moral and spiritual example of the saints.
Walser proposes that Nagarjuna wrote the "Ratnavali" in a monastery where Mahayanists were a minority, affiliated with the Mahasaṃghika subschools. He suggests that Nagarjuna lived and wrote in the Andhra region, near Dhanyakataka (modern Amaravati), in the late second century. Founder of the Madhyamaka Buddhist tradition, Nagarjuna is venerated as a second Buddha.
According to tradition, Nagarjuna's parents conceived him after honoring one hundred Brahmins, following a divine dream. Expected to live only seven years, he was sent to Nalanda, where he saw a vision of Alokiteshvara. At the age of seven, he began his monastic life in Nalanda, adopting the name "Shrimanta" after reciting the Amitabha mantra and having his life extended.
He then devoted himself to the study of Buddhism, converting many opponents and eventually becoming abbot of the monastery. Abbot is the superior of a monastery of monks in certain Christian traditions, especially in the Roman Catholic Church, but also in some Orthodox and Anglican churches. The role of an abbot is like that of a spiritual father, responsible for guiding monks in their religious and community life.
With the help of the Naga, he completed the construction of a million shrines. A notable fact was the healing of Mukhilinda, king of the Naga, who rewarded him with the book Prajnaparamita. Known for his legendary life span of six hundred years, Mukhilinda provided an elixir of longevity to King Ativahana and survived an assassination attempt by a prince, accepting the Karmic consequences.
Author of around 180 works, including Prajnaparamita and Mulamadhyamakakarika, Nagarjuna formulated the Middle Way, highlighting the emptiness of all phenomena and denying an absolute reality. He introduced alchemy into Buddhist practices, which profoundly influenced Mahayana Buddhism in India and China.
At Nalanda, Nagarjuna studied Sutra and Tantra with Ratnamati, an emanation of Manjushri, and with Saraha, especially the Guhyasamja Tantra. He also learned alchemy from a Brahmin, mastering the art of transmuting iron into gold to sustain monks during a famine. Nagarjuna and Asangha were pioneers of Mahayana. He imposed strict monastic discipline, as well as winning debates against non-Buddhists.
Two young men, emanations of the sons of the Naga king, arrived in Nalanda bringing natural fragrance of sandalwood. Nagarjuna discovered their identity and asked them for perfume for a statue of Tara and help in building temples. They agreed, but on the condition that Nagarjuna would teach them in the deep-sea kingdom. There, he made offerings and gave teachings to the Nagas.
During a class on Prajnaparamita, six Nagas protected Nagarjuna from the sun by forming a parasol over his head. For this event, he was called Nagarjuna, meaning "Naga" due to his relationship with the Nagas, and Arjuna for his direct ability to teach the Dharma, like the arrows of the hero Arjuna of the Bhagavad Gita.
Madhyamaka School
The Madhyamaka School, also known as the Middle Way, was founded by Nagarjuna in the second century AD. It became one of the most influential philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna's teachings are based on the doctrine of emptiness (Sunyata), which states that all phenomena are void of inherent or independent existence.
Basic Principles of Madhyamaka
Emptiness (Sunyata) - the central doctrine of Madhyamaka is that all phenomena are void of an inherent essence. This does not mean that phenomena do not exist, but that they do not have an independent nature. They arise depending on causes and conditions.
Middle Way - Madhyamaka avoids the extremes of eternalism (the belief in a permanent and independent existence) and nihilism (the belief that nothing exists at all). The Middle Way teaches that phenomena exist dependently, without their own essence.
Two Levels of Truth - Nagarjuna taught the distinction between relative (or conventional) truth and absolute (or ultimate) truth. Relative truth refers to the way phenomena appear in the everyday world, while absolute truth refers to their inherent emptiness.
Practice of Wisdom (Prajna) - understanding emptiness is achieved through the practice of wisdom, one of the perfections (Paramitas) in Mahayana Buddhism. Meditation and reflection on interdependence and emptiness are essential to this practice.
Refutation of Extremisms - Madhyamaka's philosophical approach often involves the refutation of extreme and essentialist points of view, using a dialectical methodology to demonstrate the emptiness of all concepts.
Nagarjuna's Philosophy
In Buddha's first sermon, he proposed a middle path between self-indulgence and self-mortification. Nagarjuna expanded this idea philosophically, identifying a middle ground between existence and non-existence, or between permanence and annihilation.
He believed that ignorance, the origin of suffering, lies in the belief in Svabhava, or intrinsic existence, which sustains the autonomy and permanence of things. Completely denying existence is equally wrong. For Nagarjuna, reality is emptiness, not the absence of existence, but the absence of intrinsic existence.
Let us do it by steps. Intrinsic refers to something that is essential and inherent to the nature of an object or being, that is, a quality or characteristic that belongs naturally and inseparably to something or someone. In other words, it is that which is part of the very and fundamental essence of something, and which does not depend on external factors.
For example: intrinsic value is the value that something has, regardless of external circumstances. Intrinsic qualities are characteristics that are an integral part of the nature of a thing or person, such as honesty which is an intrinsic quality of an honest person. When Nagarjuna argues that nothing has intrinsic existence, he means that nothing has a fixed and independent essence. Everything is interdependent and conditioned by other things.
In Mulamadhyamakakarika, Nagarjuna analyzed themes such as the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths and Nirvana, showing that none have autonomy or independence. He demonstrated that the proposed forms of existence are unsustainable. For example, an effect cannot be produced by itself, by something different, simultaneously the same and different, or by something neither the same nor different from itself, as all these possibilities are absurd.
According to the Prajnaparamita Sutras, all phenomena are Anutpada (unproduced). The aim was to destroy the Vikalpas (misconceptions) and abandon all philosophical views (Drishti). Anutpada is a Sanskrit term meaning non-arising or non-production. In the context of Buddhist philosophy, especially in the Madhyamaka tradition of Nagarjuna, Anutpada refers to the idea that phenomena do not arise intrinsically and independently.
Nagarjuna uses the concept of Anutpada to refute notions of intrinsic emergence, stating that nothing arises or is produced independently. Instead, all phenomena depend on causes and conditions for their existence, which implies that they do not have a fixed and independent essence.
In the chapter on movement, Nagarjuna asks whether "going" can be found in the path already taken, the path being traveled, or the path to follow. He concludes that "go" is absent in all these places, which reveals the emptiness of the movement. He does not deny movement, but rather that it does not exist as generally conceived.
Nagarjuna defined emptiness using the doctrine of Pratitya-Samutpada (dependent origination), which states that things arise depending on causes and conditions, avoiding the charge of nihilism. He employs the two truths: paramartha satya (ultimate truth) and Samvriti Satya (conventional truth). Everything is empty of intrinsic nature but exists conventionally. The conventional is necessary to understand the latter, and the latter makes the conventional possible. As he wrote: “For whom emptiness is possible, everything is possible.”
The Concept of Sunyata
Nagarjuna's focus is the concept of Sunyata (emptiness), which integrates Buddhist doctrines such as Anatman (no-self) and Pratityasamutpada (dependent origination) to refute contemporary metaphysics. For Nagarjuna, as for the Buddha, not only are sentient beings "non-substantial", but all phenomena (Dhammas) are devoid of "self-nature" or "inherent existence" (Svabhava), therefore, without underlying essence. They do not exist independently, but arise dependently, based on conditions that lead to their existence.
Sentient beings are those who can feel, perceive, and experience sensations and emotions. They are beings that have consciousness and can experience suffering, pleasure, pain, joy, fear, and other sensory and emotional experiences. The term is often used in philosophical, religious, and ethical contexts to distinguish beings who have conscious experiences from those who do not.
Characteristics of Sentient Beings
Consciousness – they have some level of consciousness, which allows them to perceive the environment around them and react to it.
Ability to Feel – can experience a range of physical and emotional sensations, such as pain, pleasure, hunger, thirst, happiness, and sadness.
Self-perception – many of these beings have some degree of self-perception, meaning that they not only perceive the external world, but also understand themselves as separate entities.
Importance of the Concept
Ethics and Animal Rights – the notion of sentience is central to discussions about animal ethics and animal rights. If animals are capable of suffering, we have a moral obligation to treat them with compassion and respect, avoiding causing them unnecessary suffering.
Philosophy and Religion – In several philosophical and religious traditions, sentient beings are considered worthy of special moral consideration. In Buddhism, for example, there is a strong focus on reducing the suffering of all sentient beings.
Welfare Policies – laws and regulations regarding the treatment of animals in areas such as agriculture, scientific research and entertainment often consider the ability of animals to experience suffering.
Examples of Sunyata
Material Phenomena – a table is considered empty of intrinsic existence because its existence depends on several factors such as: the wood, the carpenter's work, the space in which it is located, etc. It does not have its own essence that defines it independently of these factors.
Mental Phenomena – feelings and thoughts are also empty of intrinsic existence. They arise depending on various conditions, such as past experiences, external stimuli, and present mental states.
Understanding emptiness transforms the way we perceive reality. By recognizing that everything is interdependent and empty of fixed essence, one can develop a more flexible, compassionate, and wise attitude towards the world and life experiences. This contributes to the reduction of suffering and progression on the Buddhist path towards enlightenment.
Chapter 24, verse fourteen of Mulamadhyamakakarika provides one of Sunyata's most famous quotes:
Everything is possible when emptiness is possible. Nothing is possible when emptiness is impossible.
As part of his analysis of the emptiness of phenomena in the Mulamadhyamakakarika, Nagarjuna criticizes Svabhava on several different concepts. He discusses the problems of postulating any kind of essence inherent in causality, movement, change, and personal identity. Nagarjuna makes use of the Indian logical tool of the tetralemma to attack any essentialist conceptions.
Nagarjuna's logical analysis is based on four basic propositions:
All things (Dharma) exist: affirmation of being, negation of non-being.
All things (Dharma) do not exist: affirmation of non-being, denial of being
All things (Dharma) exist and do not exist: both affirmation and denial
All things (Dharma) neither exist nor do not exist: neither affirmation nor negation.
Nagarjuna denies any ontological foundation by stating that all things are "empty", being seen as an ontological non-foundationalist or metaphysical anti-realist. Understanding the emptiness of phenomena is a means to reach Nirvana, making its philosophical project soteriological, it refers to the study of soteriology (a part of Christian theology dedicated to salvation). It aims to correct our daily cognitive processes that mistakenly attribute Svabhava to the flow of experience.
Importance of Soteriology
Theological and Philosophical – offers a framework for understanding the relationship between the human and the divine, and the ultimate purpose of life.
Religious Practice – guides practices and behaviors that are considered necessary or useful to achieve salvation.
Ethics and Morality – influences ethical and moral systems by defining what is considered virtuous or sinful behavior.
Although scholars such as Fyodor Shcherbatskoy and T.R.V. Murti consider Nagarjuna the inventor of the doctrine of emptiness (Sunyata), recent research by Choong Mun-keat, Yin Shun and Dhammajothi Thero suggests that he did not create this theory. According to Shi Huifeng, the connection between emptiness and dependent origination existed before Nagarjuna.
Doctrine of Two Truths
Nagarjuna was instrumental in developing the doctrine of two truths, which distinguishes ultimate truth (Paramartha Satya) from conventional truth (Saṃvṛtisatya) in Buddhism. For Nagarjuna, the ultimate truth is that everything is empty of essence, including emptiness itself. Some, like Murti, have interpreted this as a neo-Kantian view, treating ultimate truth as a metaphysical number. However, others, such as Mark Siderits and Jay L. Garfield, argue that "the ultimate truth is that there is no ultimate truth" and that Nagarjuna is a "semantic anti-dualist", positing only conventional truths.
Garfield explains that when analyzing a conventional entity, such as a table, we discover that it does not exist separate from its parts, demonstrating its emptiness. This emptiness reveals that there is no inherent existence; to see it as empty is to understand it as dependent and conventional.
Nagarjuna articulated this notion in Mulamadhyamakakarika, drawing on the ancient Kaccānagotta Sutta, which distinguishes definitive meaning (Nitartha) from interpretable meaning (Neyartha). This Sutra states that the world is sustained by the polarity of existence and non-existence. With correct discernment, one does not see the world as existing or non-existent, but as something that arises and ceases depending on conditions.
Nagarjuna's doctrine emphasizes that we should not cling to extremes of existence or non-existence, but understand that all phenomena arise dependently, without an essence of their own. This reinforces correct understanding and prevents fixation on extreme views, aligning with the Buddha's teachings.
Causality, for Nagarjuna
For Nagarjuna, causality is a central concept that deeply interconnects with his ideas of emptiness (Sunyata) and interdependence (Pratityasamutpada). It offers an innovative view of causality that differs from traditional notions of cause and effect as intrinsically existing entities.
Causality is not a simple and direct relationship between independent entities, but a complex network of interdependencies where all phenomena arise in relation to each other and are empty of intrinsic essence. This view of causality as dependent and empty is fundamental to his Buddhist philosophy and practice, as it helps to deconstruct the illusions that lead to suffering and promotes the realization of the true nature of reality.
Nagarjuna also taught relativity, as exemplified in Ratnavali, arguing that concepts such as "short" and "long" exist only in relation to each other, not by an intrinsic nature (Svabhava). This idea resonates with teachings in the Pali Nikayas and Chinese Agamas, which explain that elements such as light, good, and space are understood in relation to their opposites, such as darkness, evil, and form.
These relative teachings and the critique of the reified view of causality highlight Nagarjuna's approach as a profound critique of conventional metaphysics and an exploration of the nature of reality as interdependent and void of intrinsic essence.
Hinduism
Influenced by several philosophical traditions, including Samkhya and Vaiseshika Hindus, Nagarjuna criticized the Nyaya theory of Pramanas in his works. He has demonstrated familiarity with both Sravaka philosophies and Mahayana tradition, although his specific affiliation with a Nikaya is uncertain. Nagarjuna may have sought a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's teachings in the Agamas, highlighting him as successor to Moggaliputta-Tissa and defender of the Buddha's original Middle Way.
Exegesis is the process of interpreting and explaining in detail a text, especially religious texts such as sacred scriptures. It means "explanation" or "interpretation". Exegesis is used to clarify the meaning of a text, considering its historical, cultural, linguistic and literary context. It is an essential practice for the interpretation and deep understanding of texts, especially religious ones. It helps to uncover meanings that may not be immediately evident and to apply those meanings in a relevant and accurate way
Furthermore, Nagarjuna has been compared to Pyrrhonism due to his skeptical approach, like that of Sextus Empiricus. Christopher I. Beckwith argues that Pyrrhic Greek terms reflect Buddhist concepts, indicating a connection between Greek skepticism and Indian philosophy. Although this influence is debated, the connection between Pyrrhic skepticism and Buddhist teachings suggests a philosophical exchange between West and East in Antiquity.
Pyrrhus of Elis is a central figure in the development of philosophical skepticism. His philosophy emphasizes the suspension of judgment and the search for mental tranquility through continuous doubt and the renunciation of any absolute certainty. His influence endures in the history of philosophy, shaping discussions about knowledge, belief, and doubt.
Main Works
Nagarjuna is known for his works on emptiness and their defense of the Mahayana Sutras. He profoundly influenced Buddhism as an author and abbot, criticized non-Buddhist schools, and promoted the path of the Bodhisattva. His writings established an accessible philosophical system and were fundamental to understanding complex concepts in the Mahayana tradition.
Fundamental Verses of the Middle Path (Mulamadhyamakakarika) – Nagarjuna’s most important work. In it, he expounds the doctrine of emptiness and the Middle Way with a series of verses that challenge misconceptions about existence. He affirms emptiness (Sunyata) and dependent co-origination (Pratityasamutpada) and from this the interdependence between Nirvana and Samsara. He critiques central concepts such as time, self, movement, and suffering that profoundly influence Mahayana Buddhism and the development of Zen Buddhism in China, Japan, and Korea.
Dissolution of Controversies – Nagarjuna faces criticism of his doctrine of emptiness, especially from a realist opponent of the Nyaya school. This critic suggests that denying intrinsic existence compromises the criteria of truth and can lead to nihilism. Nagarjuna responds that emptiness reveals the relational and interdependent nature of phenomena and is not a metaphysics. He argues that emptiness does not deny, but challenges the absolute view of things, demonstrating that the realist position is illogical and untenable for dense and sophisticated argumentation.
Vigrahavyāvartanī (Refutation of Objections) – in this work, Nagarjuna responds to criticisms and objections to his philosophy, clarifying misunderstandings about emptiness.
Ratnāvalī (The Precious Jewel) – is a letter of advice to a king, where Nagarjuna applies the principles of emptiness and the Middle Way to everyday life and government ethics.
The influence of Nagarjuna's Writings
The Madhyamaka School had a profound influence on the development of Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Tibet, where it became the basis of most Tibetan philosophical traditions. His teachings on emptiness are fundamental to the practice and realization of the Buddhist path. Nagarjuna's writings, especially the Mula-Madhyamaka-karika, explore themes such as the nature of reality, emptiness, and the interdependence of phenomena, with logical rigor and spiritual depth. His impact endures, influencing Buddhist leaders such as the Dalai Lama and shaping Buddhist philosophy and practice in Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, and beyond.
Nagarjuna's influence goes beyond the Madhyamaka School. His teachings on Sunyata and the nature of reality have profoundly impacted several Buddhist traditions and practices, such as Zen Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. His philosophical knowledge was fundamental in shaping the understanding of key Buddhist concepts, such as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
These insights provide a more nuanced interpretation and application of these teachings in the context of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna's legacy inspires Buddhists and scholars around the world and offers a path to deeper understanding and spiritual fulfillment. His teachings on emptiness were instrumental in developing Buddhist meditation techniques and cultivating wisdom and compassion in Buddhist practice.
Legacy
Nagarjuna profoundly influenced Buddhism in Asia, including China and Tibet, for more than a thousand years. His teachings transcend Buddhism, impacting Zen, Jainism and Taoism. He defined two truths: conventional and ultimate (empty). In the West, he influenced Pyrrhus of Elis, promoting skepticism after Alexander's campaign in India. His works such as Fundamental Verses of the Middle Way explore logic, epistemology, spirituality, and ontology. It reflects his deep vision of reality and the interdependence of phenomena. Nagarjuna is one of the most relevant thinkers in the East, with a legacy.
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