Dynasties of Ancient China
Ancient China was ruled by several dynasties, each of which left a lasting impact on civilization. The main dynasties were:
Xia Dynasty (c. 2070 BC – 1600 BC) – considered the first dynasty, although its existence is more legendary than proven. It represents the beginning of Chinese civilization.
Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1046 BC) – the first dynasty with archaeological evidence, marked by the development of writing on oracle bones and the skill of bronzesmiths.
Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046 BC – 256 BC) – divided into Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou. During this period Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism emerged. The concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” was established to justify imperial power. Includes the Warring States Era (475 BC – 221 BC).
Qin Dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC) – unified China under Qin Shi Huang, standardized writing and currency and built the Great Wall. Although short-lived, it was very influential.
Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) – consolidated the imperial bureaucracy and Confucianism as the official ideology. There was great territorial expansion, scientific advances, and the beginning of the Silk Road.
First Texts of Chinese Philosophy
The oldest texts of Chinese thought include the SHUJING, SHIJING, I CHING or YIJING, LIJING and YUEJING. They cover a period of about 1,700 years, from Huangdi (c. 2500 BC) to the Warring States (480 - 222 BC). These works formed the basis of the philosophical schools that emerged in the sixth century BC.
SHUJING – Book of Documents
The SHUJING or Book of Documents, is one of the oldest works of Chinese literature and part of the Five Confucian Classics. It brings together speeches and documents from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties, focusing on fair governance and political morality. The text highlights the relationship between rulers and Heaven (Tian), a cosmic force that legitimized royal power. The central idea is that leaders must govern with virtue and justice to preserve social harmony, and the Mandate of Heaven profoundly influences Confucian thought and Chinese political ethics.
SHIJING - Book of Odes or Classic of Poetry
The SHIJING, known as the Book of Odes or Classic of Poetry, was composed between the 11th and 7th centuries BC. It contains 305 poems that depict daily life, morality, politics, and religion. It is divided into three sections: FENG (Odes of States), YA (Elegant Odes) and SONG (Odes of Sacrifice). The SHIJING has profoundly influenced Chinese culture and philosophical thought. Confucius valued it for its role in refining virtues and education, using poetry to teach moral lessons and reflections on society to shape Confucian thinking on ethics and morals.
I CHING or YIJING (Book of Changes)
The I CHING or YIJING (Book of Changes) appeared in the late Yin and early Zhou Dynasties (c. 1143 BC) as a manual of divination. Between 500 and 200 BC, it evolved into a cosmological text supplemented by the commentaries of the Ten Wings, until it became one of the Five Chinese Classics in the second century BC. I Ching divination involves the generation of hexagrams by yarrow stalks that guide decisions and interpret cosmic changes. Influenced by Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, the I Ching manifests the interplay of yin-yang and the five elements, exploring the creative force "YI".
LIJING - Book of Rites
The LIJING or Book of Rites, is a compilation of texts on rituals and social norms from Ancient China, part of the Five Confucian Classics. It describes religious rituals, etiquette, and social organization of the Zhou Dynasty and highlights the concept of "LI" (ritual) as an ethical basis for maintaining harmony in family, society, and government.
YUEJING - Book of Music
The YUEJING or Book of Music, is a work that was attributed to the Chinese Classical tradition and was lost as an independent text. It dealt with the importance of music in society and in the harmony of the universe. Although not as well preserved as the other classical texts, the YUEJING had a profound influence on Confucian thought about music, which was seen as an essential tool for educating the emotions and promoting social order. Confucius believed that music and rites (LI) should go together, both being crucial for moral formation and personal cultivation.
YIJING or The Classic of Changes
The YIJING, known in Portuguese as the Classic of Changes, is one of the oldest and most influential texts in Chinese philosophy, with origins dating back more than 3,000 years. It is one of the five classics of Confucian literature and is considered one of the pillars of Chinese culture. It influences not only philosophical thought, but also politics, literature, and art.
ITSZIN – Book of Transmutations
The ITSZIN, or Book of Transmutations, mentions the eight “first foundations” that interact to create diverse realities. It was initially a text of predictions, but it began to receive philosophical interpretation and significantly influenced the development of Chinese philosophy through its imagery and symbolism.
Between the 8th and 5th centuries B.C., the doctrine of the five “blind forces” or first elements of nature became widely disseminated. Ancient Chinese thinkers taught that the connections of the five “first foundations,” water, fire, metal, wood, and earth, create all the diversity of phenomena and things.
Each of these texts played a significant role in shaping ancient Chinese thought.
The YIJING deals with the flux and transformations of the universe. The LIJING deals with the rituals and social norms that sustain harmony between individuals and society. The YUEJING emphasizes the importance of music as a central element in maintaining emotional and social harmony. Together, these books helped shape Confucian philosophy and Chinese ethics in a variety of areas, from politics to personal morality.
Hundred Schools of Thought
Ancient Chinese philosophy developed during the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought, the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (c. 772-221 BCE). Schools such as Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism flourished and profoundly shaped Chinese thought, especially with the “three teachings” (SANJIAO). The Yin-yang School interpreted natural phenomena based on natural forces, influencing cosmology, astrology, and the magical arts. Zou Yan, its leading thinker, connected historical changes to the five elemental phases of nature (Wu Xing).
During the Warring States Period, Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism gained prominence, but the Qin state prevailed, and Qin Shi Huangdi founded the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) and adopted Legalism as his state philosophy. He ordered the burning of books from other schools, but some works survived.
The Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) revived philosophical interest and adopted Confucianism as the official philosophy under the Han emperor Wu Ti, who retained Taoism and Legalism as important influences. Despite later Western influences, these philosophies, which were central to Chinese thought, persisted and shaped ethics, politics, and culture in China.
Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy
Until the modern period, there was no systematic effort to record the history of Chinese Philosophy. Zhuangzi and Sima Tan (165?-110 BC) classified six schools of thought: YIN-YANG, Confucianism, Mohism, the School of Names, Legalism, and Taoism. In the 20th century, Hu Shi and Feng Youlan published important works on the subject, followed by Lao Siguang and Bo Mou.
In the Classical Period (sixth-third century BC), concepts such as Dao (Way), De (virtue), Ren (humanity), and Yin-Yang emerged. Confucius saw the Dao as the Way of the sage-kings, and when founding Taoism, Laozi associated it with nature. In the third–ninth centuries CE, metaphysical questions about Ultimate Reality marked Chinese thought, especially in Neo-Daoism and Buddhism.
The “Great Commentary (Da Zhuan)” on the Classic of Changes (YIJING)
Chinese philosophy began with the YIJING (Classic of Changes), an ancient divination manual from the Western Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–771 BCE) and seven commentaries called SHIYI (The Ten Wings), traditionally attributed to Confucius, without firm evidence. The Da Zhuan or Xici (Great Commentary) is fundamental to philosophical study, as it presents the oldest Chinese ontology. In 1997, Edward Shaughnessy translated the Classic of Changes and suggested that it be published between 320–and 168 BCE, revealing a view of the ever-changing world and the human role.
Ontology is an area of philosophy that studies the nature of being existence and reality. It investigates what exists, the fundamental categories of the world and the relationship between different entities. It also analyzes the structure and properties of beings and influences areas such as metaphysics, epistemology, and science in the understanding of reality.
Between the 8th and 5th centuries BCE, the doctrine of the five “blind forces” or first elements of nature became widely disseminated. Ancient Chinese thinkers taught that the connections of the five “first foundations” of water, fire, metal, wood, and earth create all the diversity of phenomena and things.
Principles
Between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE, Chinese philosophy flourished with several schools. Taoism, represented by Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, addressed philosophical questions, while Mozi devoted himself to epistemology. Confucianism and Legalism influenced ethics and politics and characterized a golden age of Chinese thought. Epistemology is the area of philosophy that studies knowledge. It investigates the nature, origin, limits, and validity of human knowledge. The main questions of epistemology include: What is knowledge? How do we know that something is true? What are the sources of knowledge? What are the criteria for differentiating true beliefs from false ones?
Philosophical Schools
Yin and Yan
The Yin and Yang symbol, from Taoism, represents opposing forces in constant transformation and interdependence, reflecting the relativity of concepts. Taoism emphasizes careful analysis to find the right "path" in each situation. It influences areas such as alchemy, traditional medicine, martial arts, Feng Shui and Qi-Gong.
Feng Shui is a Chinese practice that harmonizes the energy (QI) of environments, promoting well-being and balance. This is done by arranging furniture, objects, and colors to facilitate the circulation of positive energy and avoid blockages. The Bagua is used to relate areas of a space to aspects of life to balance YIN and YANG forces and improve the quality of life in interior design.
Bagua is a concept that originated in Chinese philosophy, especially in the context of Taoism and Feng Shui practices. Bagua is a tool that represents the interaction of the principles of Yin and Yang and the five elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, and water). The term "Feng Shui" means "wind and water", and this practice is based on the belief that the arrangement of spaces and the organization of objects influence people's lives in several ways.
Qi-Gong is an ancient practice that combines movements, breathing techniques and meditation to cultivate QI (vital energy) in the body. Meaning "energy cultivation", it seeks to improve physical, mental, and emotional health through gentle postures and controlled breathing to achieve relaxation and energetic balance.
The Names School
The Name School was a Chinese school of thought from the Hundred Schools of Thought era (sixth-third centuries BC), which flourished during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Also called the Logician or Disputant School, this philosophical current focused on the study of language, logic, and the relationship between names (Míng) and the realities to which they refer. Importance and Influence:
Language and Thought – raised profound questions about the role of language in shaping thought and the way we perceive the world. They highlighted that language can be a misleading tool and that we need to be careful when making statements and categorizing the world.
Challenges to Traditional Philosophy – by questioning the relationship between names and reality, the Name School challenged the more traditional views of other Chinese philosophical schools, such as Confucianism and Taoism, which saw the correct use of language as an essential part of the moral and social order.
Relativism and Pluralism – the relativist and pluralist approach of the Name School offered an alternative view to those seeking fixed and universal truths, highlighting the importance of considering multiple perspectives and context when discussing concepts and values.
Late Spring and Autumn Period of China – three hundred years of prosperity and stability that allowed the Hundred Schools of Thought to flourish, in which diverse ideas were freely discussed.
Warring States – A new class of thinkers and scholars emerged, most of whom worked in the courts of noble families. These scholars were chosen on merit rather than family connections. This new meritocratic class of thinkers posed a challenge to the hereditary rulers who believed in a Mandate of Heaven, resulting in a series of conflicts as various scholars vied for control over China.
Confucianism – If a leader desires good, the people will be good
Chinese philosophy is deeply linked to Confucius (Kongzi, 551-479 BC), whose teachings are collected in The Analects (Lunyu), a work with 20 books of philosophical conversations. Ronnie Littlejohn divides The Analects into four main groups, with the Ru, from the Zhou Dynasty, being the most prominent, loyal to the "Way of Heaven".
Confucianism, which was consolidated in the Han Dynasty, re-emerged in the 1980s with central concepts such as REN (benevolence), JUNZI (superior man), YI (justice), XIAO (filiality) and LI (rites). Confucian morality focuses on the traditional virtues of loyalty, duty and respect, with JUNZI as an example of virtue. He believed that despite human imperfection, virtuous example can transform society and create a just order through benevolent government.
Reciprocity is a central principle in Confucianism, suggesting that generous treatment generates similar responses. A just ruler positively influences his subjects, and leadership should be exemplified by the JUNZI, who manifests virtue, faith, and sincerity. Between the 7th and 3rd centuries BCE, Confucianism significantly impacted China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan, with its emphasis on cosmic harmony and ancestor worship, and remained the official religion of China until 1912.
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism combined elements of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, focusing on the concepts of LI (principle) and Qi (life force). LI represents the universal principle that defines the nature of things and is always positive, contrasting with Buddhist emptiness and Taoist non-being. Qi individualizes each person and obscures their innate goodness. Zhu Xi, a prominent Neo-Confucian thinker, emphasized that LI is the essence common to all. Neo-Confucianism seeks to understand the laws of human nature and the universe to guide ethical conduct. In the 20th century, Westernization and Marxism influenced Chinese philosophy and enabled new approaches.
Taoism
The philosophy of Dao, initiated by Laozi and expanded by Zhuangzi, explores the Dao as an immaterial essence that predates the creation of the universe. The Dao is a continuous movement that symbolizes life, perceived intuitively. The concept of Wuwei (non-action) suggests acting without conscious effort, in harmony with the Dao. Zhuangzi describes the Dao as the "No-place", a state where knowledge is unattainable.
Taoism seeks a return to total communion with "nothingness" (XU) and the "great beginning" (taichu). The Dao has two aspects: the nameless Dao, a hidden reality, and the named Dao, the "mother" of all things, operating through the Yin and Yang forces that harmonize QI(vital energy). The Taoist sage practices "fasting of the mind" to allow QI to flourish.
During the disintegration of the Chinese state, Buddhism gained prominence, but the Tang Dynasty reaffirmed Confucianism as the official doctrine. Neo-Confucianism, which emerged in the Song Dynasty, integrated Confucianism, Taoism and Chan Buddhism, emphasizing ethical principles.
Taoism is divided into two branches: Dàojia (philosophical) and Dàojiào (religious). Laozi advocated a life in harmony with nature, rejecting greed and monarchical regimes, promoting a natural and spontaneous order.
Legism – Upholding the Rule of Law
Legism is the pragmatic totalitarian political philosophy of Han Fei, whose maxim was “When times change, ways change” and its fundamental principle was jurisprudence. In this context, “legism” means “political philosophy that upholds the rule of law”, thus distinguishing it from the Western sense of the word. Legism was the philosophy chosen by the Qin Dynasty. Its government is based on the following trinity:
FA – Law or principle.
SHU – Method, tactics or art.
SHI – Legitimacy, energy or charisma.
Legalist School and Men of Method
The Legalist School, known as Men of Method, sought the most effective way to govern. It advocated political centralism and impartiality in public office. Hanfeizi, its main theorist, argued that the natural goodness of human beings was an illusion, and that education could not improve it.
For the Legalists, a strong government required the authority of the sovereign and written laws to control individual conduct. In 213 BCE, these laws were to be clear, with the sovereign ensuring their enforcement through rewards and punishments. This totalitarian doctrine ignored cultural and spiritual values, led to the censorship of thought, and the destruction of literary works. Legalism came into conflict with Taoism and Confucianism, which valued individual freedom and education.
Mozi and Mohism
The Mohist School was a philosophical school in pre-Qin China led by Mozi (c. 470 - 391 BC), whose main source is the anthology Mozi, which highlights the Ten Essential Doctrines. Mozi was an early advocate of consequentialism, promoting the well-being of the people and rejecting military aggression in favor of meritocratic leadership. Mozi introduced the idea of JIAN AI (universal love), which proposed equal affection for all. He argued that morality should be guided by utilitarian principles rather than inconsistent traditions.
The school criticized Confucian theories and traditional institutions, and promoted a simple and practical life, emphasizing sincerity, equality, and the common good. Mozi organized his school in a military manner, prioritizing loyalty and obedience. He advocated a centralized government to combat disorder. Deeply religious, he believed in the intelligence of spirits and the will of Heaven, criticized Confucian rationalism, and promoted actions that would benefit the nation to sustain the legitimacy of the monarchy.
Chinese Buddhism
Buddhism is a philosophy, religion, and practical psychology based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived in India in the 4th or 3rd century B.C. "Buddha" means "the awakened one," referring to enlightenment. Without recognizing a creator, Buddhism seeks to eradicate the suffering caused by desire and attachment, fruits of ignorance about the nature of existence. Awakening is achieved through meditation, ethics, and study. With 380 to 700 million followers, it is the fourth largest religion, divided into currents such as Theravada, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.
Introduced to China in the Han Dynasty, Buddhism predominated in the Mahayana form, which aimed at spiritual elevation through the practice of the Dharma. Between the 7th and 9th centuries, it expanded, but suffered persecution during the Tang Dynasty in 845, when convents were destroyed. Despite this, Buddhism survived, assimilating itself with Taoism and Confucianism. Its acceptance in China was facilitated by its compatibility with Taoism and the introduction of concepts such as Karma, enlightenment and emptiness, profoundly influencing Chinese thought.
Ethics and morals
In the field of ethics, Chinese philosophy focused on the essence of human beings. Confucius' ideas inspired Mencius, who defended the innate goodness of human beings, and Siun-tse, who believed in their innate evil. Theories of individualism, such as that of Yan Chu, and altruism, such as that of Mo-tse, also stood out.
Between the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD, theories of natural philosophy and cosmology continued to be based on the doctrine of the five elements and the polar forces of Yin and Yang. Van Chun offered a materialist interpretation of these concepts, while mystical theories and religious movements emerged in Taoism and Confucianism.
Materialism and Idealism
In the first centuries of the Christian era, the central debate between materialism and idealism revolved around the relationship between "being" and "non-being". During this period, Taoism and Confucianism influenced the conceptions of the YUAN (initial), TSI (first matter) and the TAO.
In the 1st century, Buddhism spread in China, and became one of the main currents of thought, alongside Confucianism and Taoism. In the 5th and 6th centuries, Buddhist mysticism generated debates about the unreality of the world, while materialists such as Je Chen-tian criticized the belief in the immortality of the soul. Neo-Confucianism, developed by Chu Si, held that LI (principle) is primary and TSI (matter) is secondary and faced opposition from materialists such as Chen Lian and Lo Tsin-shun.
Foreign Penetration
The Opium War of 1840 marked the beginning of foreign penetration into China, leading to the peasant revolt known as the Tai-ping movement, which promoted utopian ideas of social restructuring. As China became semi-colonial, thinkers such as Tan Si-tun and Sun Yat-sen continued the materialist traditions of Chinese philosophy. Inspired by the Russian Revolution, the May Fourth Movement of 1919 initiated a new phase in the development of Chinese political and philosophical thought. Marxism-Leninism became the main ideological weapon in the struggle for national independence, with the working class led by the Communist Party as the central force.
School of Minor Talks
The School of Minor Talks (also known as the Fictionists) developed from the political practice of sending government officials into the streets to listen to and report what people were saying. This eventually formed the basis of the philosophy of the thoughts of the common people.
This philosophy never gained a large following, and little is known about who founded it or how it was observed. Its adherents were called "Fictionists," presumably because there was no way to verify that what they reported as having been heard was what they actually heard.
School of Diplomacy
The School of Diplomacy, as the name suggests, focused on training in diplomatic policy as a means of improving one's character and improving the state. Through training in diplomacy, one learned to treat others with courtesy while at the same time convincing them of one's superior position or policy. This school was eventually absorbed into Confucianism.
Agriculture – Egalitarian Philosophy
Agriculture, whose main advocate was the philosopher Xu Xing (c. 372-c. 289 BCE), was an egalitarian philosophy that held that social classes naturally led to oppression and that everyone, from peasant to king, should work the land equally and benefit from their labor. In doing so, everyone would recognize their connection to one another and help one another as they wished to be helped. Xu Xing’s philosophy contradicted the basic tenets of Confucianism, which emphasized the importance of social structure, and was discredited by Mencius.
Syncretism – the Attempt to Cohesion the Major Schools
Syncretism attempted to combine the concepts of Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Mohism into a cohesive philosophical system. The most prominent proponent of this school was the Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (l. 179–104 BCE), who essentially took what suited the Confucian view from the other three systems. Dong Zhongshu’s Confucianism would eventually form the basis for Neo-Confucianism, which is still observed in modern China and around the world.
Contemporary China
In contemporary China, Marxism became the official philosophy from the 1920s onwards, solidifying with the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949. It evolved from Leninism to Maoism while criticizing traditional Chinese philosophy through a materialist perspective, centered on the struggle between materialism and idealism. Since 1957, intense debates have addressed issues such as good and evil and the relationship between Being and Non-Being. The concept of Dao varies across philosophical schools. For Confucius, it is the Way of the sage-kings, while Laozi sees it as the Way of nature. Chinese philosophy emphasizes humanism and seeks a unity between man and the natural order throughout history.
֎
Links used and suggested
֎ EcuRed
Comments