Philosophical schools - Part 1

campusaraujo
Jun 1, 2023
11 min read

Updated: Apr 16

Warming up the engines

Now that we understand what Philosophy is and what it is for, let us get to know some philosophical schools and movements. A philosophical movement begins with the rise in popularity of a particular line of philosophical thought or an apparent shift in philosophical thinking on a particular subject.

The philosophical school usually began as an informal grouping of disciples around a philosopher. The boundaries of identity and beliefs, especially in pre-Socratic philosophy and in the first generation after Socrates (470 BC-399 BC) generated disagreements over central issues.

The main philosophical schools of the Hellenistic Period were Stoicism, Cynicism, Skepticism and Epicureanism. All sought to establish a set of rational norms to guide individual life through the absence of suffering to achieve happiness and well-being.

To warm up the engines, I will briefly present some of the schools of thought. Do not worry about the complicated terms and words because there is no getting away from them in Philosophy. This is important for us to have a first view of Philosophy over time. We will cover this in more detail as we move forward in future posts.

Greek antiquity

Stoicism

Founded by Zeno of Citium (333 BC – 263 BC), it focuses on the ideal of the human being and trusts in a self-sufficient being. Phenomena external to life such as emotion, pleasure and suffering should be left aside. Wisdom lies in the being's ability to achieve happiness without needing anything or anyone. He who achieves this self-sufficiently, without needing material goods, will be wiser.

The Stoic must focus on how to live in a world where things do not go your way. The central idea is acceptance of all things that are beyond your control. The pain will pass, you will remain, so the best thing to do is focus on what you can control.

Representatives: Zenon of Citium (333 BC – 263 BC), Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180), Seneca (04 BC – 65 AD), Posidonius (135 – 51 BC) and Epictetus (50 – 138).

Ionian and the Italic Schools

The Ionian School and the Italic School were the two main branches of pre-Socratic thought in Ancient Greece. The Ionian School, represented by Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, sought rational explanations for the origin of the universe, focusing on natural elements such as water, apeiron, and air. The Italic School, associated with Pythagoras and his followers, emphasized mathematics, harmony, and the belief in the soul’s reincarnation. While the Ionians investigated the physical cosmos, the Italics combined science, religion, and ethics. Both schools marked the beginning of Western philosophy by abandoning mythology in favor of a rational explanation of reality.

Cynicism

The word cynicism originates from the Greek term kynismós and is the philosophical doctrine of the cynics who preached total contempt for material goods and pleasure. For cynics, moral philosophy could not be separated from the way of life of philosophers. They should be examples of what they claim.

The term cynical is often used to refer to someone who demonstrates, in their actions and behavior, some kind of impudence, sarcasm or mockery. In a figurative sense, cynicism has a pejorative connotation, as it designates a sharp and scathing person who does not respect established feelings and values or social conventions.

Skepticism

Philosophical current in Classical Greece founded by the Greek philosopher Pyrrho (318-272 BC). The word skepticism comes from the Greek, sképsis, which means "examination, investigation". For skeptics, it is not possible to reach absolute certainty about the truth because it is necessary to constantly question and investigate the phenomena that occur in human existence.

Skepticism criticizes the ability of human reason to establish philosophical proofs. He opposes not religion but dogmatism. Dogma, in Greek, means to believe.

The first thinkers who collaborated for the development of the concept were Carneades (214 BC - 129 BC) and Sextus Empiricus (160 - 210).

Hedonism

Originating in Ancient Greece, it is a moral doctrine in which the pursuit of pleasure is the sole purpose of life. Its creators believed that life has two main conditions: pain and pleasure. The condition of pleasure would be the only path to happiness. Supreme pleasure is the aim of action. So, pleasure means something more than mere sensual pleasure.

Hedonism is often seen as synonymous with Epicureanism; however, there are some differences between them. Epicurus (341 – 270 BC) created Epicureanism to perfect Hedonism. He linked the pursuit of pleasure to a system of virtue ethics based on moderation, as moderation leads to maximum happiness for the individual overall.

Famous hedonists include Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) and Michel Onfray (1959 – 2018).

Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Michel Onfray are thinkers who, though distinct in time and approach, reflect on ethics, pleasure, and the role of the individual in society. Bentham, founder of utilitarianism, argued that a moral action is one that produces “the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people”, grounding ethics in the rational calculation of pleasure and pain. Stuart Mill refined this theory by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures and emphasizing individual liberty as essential to collective well-being. Michel Onfray, a contemporary French philosopher, critiques idealist traditions and advocates a hedonistic ethics inspired by thinkers like Epicurus and Nietzsche. Onfray proposes a philosophy of the body, of immanence and joy, focused on concrete and sensual life. While Bentham and Mill operate within the realm of duty and utility, Onfray promotes an aesthetic and libertarian ethics. Together, the three offer provocative perspectives on how to live well and meaningfully.

Epicureanism

Philosophy initiated by Epicurus of Samos (341 - 270 BC) and strongly associated with Hedonism. For him, wisdom consists in learning to master pleasures well so as not to be dominated by them. Epicurus was skeptical of superstition and divinity. He proposed that the only meaning of existence was self-pleasure, or more precisely, the absence of pain and fear, the combination of which would lead to happiness in its highest form.

The body and soul should not suffer to reach pleasure in this way. The greatest pleasure was obtained by knowledge, friendship, and virtue – as well as sex and food. In this sense, people's goal lies in achieving well-being through the body and mind to achieve “absence of disturbance” (ataraxia).

Do not spoil what you have by desiring what you do not have; remember that what you now have was once among the things you only hoped for.

Epicurus

Idealism

Idealism emphasizes that “ideas or concepts are the essence of everything worth knowing,” that is, the only true reality is that of ideas. Based on the writings of Plato (428/427 – 348/347 BC), idealism encourages conscious reasoning. Idealists also look for and value universal or absolute truths and ideas. They believe that ideas should remain constant over centuries.

For Plato, truth was the central reality, but he did not believe that people created knowledge, rather they "discovered" it. With the myth of the cave, in the book The Republic, he describes two worlds: the spiritual or mental and the world of appearance. Considering that there was an excessive focus on the physical and sensory world, he believed that education develops in the student's body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which he is capable. According to him, to understand truth you must first understand knowledge.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a philosophical (unphilosophical to some) view that life has no objective meaning, purpose, value, or truth. Its central idea is the lack of belief in meaning or substance in an area of philosophy. For them, life is meaningless.

The word nihilism is derived from the Latin nihil, meaning nothing, and is more a series of related positions and problems than a single school of thought. They reject belief in a superior creator and claim that objective secular ethics is impossible.

It is the main philosophy among anguished teenagers who do not understand Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900) because, contrary to popular understanding, Nietzsche was not a nihilist. Instead, he wrote about the dangers posed by nihilism and offered solutions to them.

Friedrich Nietzsche – truth is a construction

Friedrich Nietzsche was one of the most influential and provocative philosophers of the 19th century. A critic of Christian morality, idealism, and social conventions, he proposed a philosophy of life grounded in affirmation, the will to power, and the overcoming of limits. A defender of free thinking, he coined concepts such as “beyond good and evil,” “eternal return,” and “Übermensch” (overman), challenging established values. For Nietzsche, truth is a construction, and art is a superior form of expressing existence. His poetic, aphoristic, and rebellious writing marked generations by proposing the courage to live without illusions and create new meanings for life.

Existentialism

School of thought originating from the work of Soren Kierkegaard (1813 – 1855) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900). The focus of Existentialism is on the problems posed by existential Nihilism. Existentialists are fundamentally focused on analyzing the human condition and the importance of the individual rather than external standards. The individual human being creates the meaning and essence of his life. It is his actions that determine who he is and the meaning of his existence.

One of the basic principles held by existentialist philosophers is that "existence precedes essence". The human being does not have a firm condition, that is, there is no nature that leads him to be one way or another. The starting point is his existence. As he does not have an established nature, he has the freedom to build it throughout his life.

Main philosophers: Soren Kierkegaard (1813 – 1855), considered the founder of existentialism, Henri Bergson (1859 – 1941), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 – 1980), Simone de Beauvoir (1908 – 1986) and Martin Heidegger (1889 – 1976). Albert Camus (1913 – 1960) was associated with the movement but considered himself independent of it.

Absurdism

Philosophy based on the assertion that humanity's efforts to find meaning in the universe will fail because such meaning does not exist, at least in relation to humanity. Absurdity asserts that while such a meaning may exist, the search for it is not essential. It is distinguished from Nihilism by its subjective view of humanity, theology, and meaning. It is best thought of as the 'agnostic' stage between Existentialism and Nihilism.

Soren Kierkegaard (1813 – 1855) wrote extensively about Absurdism in the mid-19th century, but philosophy is most associated with Albert Camus (1913-1960) and his novels The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus.

Albert Camus and the meaninglessness of the world

Albert Camus was a French writer and philosopher who played a central role in 20th-century existentialist and absurdist thought. He rejected closed philosophical systems and sought to understand the human condition in the face of the world’s lack of meaning. In works such as The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus, he explored the absurdity of existence and the need for an ethical and courageous response: to live despite the absurd, without clinging to false hopes. Camus championed lucidity, rebellion, and compassion as paths to an authentic life. His clear, committed prose made his voice one of the most humanistic in modern philosophy.

Relativism

Philosophical movement started in Ancient Greece by the sophists. Relativists claim that views are relative to perspective or considerations. This idea can even be applied to morality or truth itself, with some arguing that there are no moral facts or absolute truths.

Likewise, situational relativism is an ethical idea that one rule must be followed under all but a few conditions, when we would follow another rule. For example, do not kill unless you save lives by doing so. This idea, in revised form, was supported by the American philosopher Robert Nozick (1938 – 2002) in his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia.

Humanism

Humanism is an intellectual movement that took place in the 14th and 15th centuries during the Renaissance. Humanistic philosophy takes place in a transitional period between the Middle Ages and Modernity. For humanists, the human being is the center of nature, so they seek to understand how he acts, his thoughts and abilities to give rational meaning to life. This movement rescues and studies the Greek and Latin classics and takes them as a reference.

Representatives: Leonardo Bruni (1370 - 1444), Marsilio Ficino (1433 – 1499) Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463 - 1494) and Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466 - 1536).

Secular humanism

Atheistic philosophy that sustains reason, ethics, and justice as the principles of life. As the concept of a supernatural creator is rejected, the meaning of life must be found purely in human terms. There is no absolute truth or absolute morality; truth, meaning, and morality are unique to each person. Thinkers associated with secular Humanism include Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 - 1900), Bertrand Russell (1872 - 1970), and Richard Dawkins (1941).

Utilitarianism

Ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is determined solely by its contribution to general utility. The adaptation of decisions to their consequences in the reality for which they are destined, with flexibility of the technological understanding of the norms, in the search for a transcendent justice.

This means that the moral worth of an action is determined by its result.

Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832), first theorized Utilitarianism, when he declared that 'good' was what brought the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. However, Philosophy is most associated with John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) and his book Utilitarianism (1863).

Existentialism, absurdism, utilitarianism,

secular humanism, and confucianism

Existentialism – a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and the creation of meaning in a world without absolute truths. Philosophers like Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir highlight anguish and choice as central to human existence

Absurdism – associated with Albert Camus, it recognizes the conflict between the human desire for meaning and the silence of the universe, proposing lucidity and rebellion as responses

Utilitarianism – developed by Jeremy Bentham and refined by John Stuart Mill, it seeks to maximize collective happiness by evaluating actions based on their consequences

Secular Humanism – rejects supernatural explanations and proposes an ethics grounded in reason, science, and compassion, valuing human rights, freedom, and progress

Confucianism – originating in China with Confucius, it promotes an ethics centered on social harmony, personal virtues, and the importance of family and education. By valuing respect, justice, and tradition, Confucianism has deeply influenced East Asian culture and politics

Marxism

The word Marxism dubiously designates the political doctrine elaborated by Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) and the method of socioeconomic analysis based on what Marx called historical-dialectical materialism, characterized by the movement of thought through historical materiality of men's lives in society.

Marx asserted that, between the classes of each society, there is a constant struggle for opposing interests. In capitalist society, social division occurred due to the appropriation of the means of production to a specific group, the bourgeois, and another group exploited due to its capacity and workforce, the proletariat.

The bourgeoisie operated capitalism in a destructive way for relations between men and transformed all human dignity into a simple exchange favor. The dominant class exploits and drains the forces of the dominated class in exchange for a value far below what their work is worth.

Karl Marx and historical materialism

Karl Marx was one of the most influential thinkers of the 19th century, the founder of historical materialism and scientific socialism. He analyzed the contradictions of capitalism and emphasized class struggle as the driving force of history. For Marx, the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie would generate inequality and crises, requiring a revolution to establish a classless society. In works such as The Communist Manifesto and Capital, he argued that material conditions shape consciousness and that the economy determines the social structure. His thought deeply influenced politics, sociology, and workers' movements in the modern world.

Rationalism

Philosophical doctrine since reason is the origin of knowledge, and not experience, as advocated by Empiricism. That is, we can only consider as certain what originates in our own understanding. Rationalism emerged in the 17th century at the hands of René Descartes (1596 – 1650), who tried to find true knowledge based on reason.

If our senses are often wrong, how can we trust them to get reality right? This is the fundamental tenet of rationalism, the idea that knowledge should come primarily from reason and thought rather than empirical evidence. Today, most thinkers combine rationalist notions with empirical data.

Thinkers who advocated rationalism also included Socrates (469/470 – 399 BC), Baruch de Spinoza (1632 - 1677) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716) ֎