%20(1).jpg)
Persia, known today as Iran, was the cradle of a vast empire that developed in three distinct phases throughout history. The Achaemenids, who reigned from 550 to 330 BC, established the first Persian Empire under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. This period witnessed rapid territorial expansion and the rise of Zoroastrianism as the predominant religion, replaced by Islam in the seventh century A.D. Persian art at this time reflected a synthesis of styles, incorporating influences from conquered and neighboring peoples.
The Achaemenids were skilled in various forms of art and construction. They were notable for their intricate reliefs, precious metals transformed into jewelry and figurines, enamelled brick masonry and the elaborate decoration of palaces and gardens. They created grand cities, temples, and mausoleums, standing out for their artistic versatility that combined elements of the Median, Assyrian, and Asian Greek styles.
Art originating in ancient Persia encompasses a wide range of artistic forms such as painting, architecture, sculpture, crafts, and reliefs. Under the Achaemenids, initiated by Cyrus the Great, the empire expanded rapidly after decisive conquests over the Medes, Lydians, and Babylonians. The art of this period reflects a warrior civilization, with monumental sculptures such as the bas-relief of Darius I in Behistun (515 BC) and elaborate textiles.
Persian decorative arts date back to the seventh millennium BC, with a significant development in bronze between 2000 and 1000 BC. Under the Sasanians, textiles with symmetrical designs of animal and plant motifs stood out as important artistic industries. During the Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires (sixth century BC - 7th century AD), architecture and sculpture predominated. After the introduction of Islam in the seventh century AD, architecture reached a period of great splendor, while painting gained prominence between the 13th and 17th centuries.
Achaemenid silver wine pourer Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright). Oxus Treasure Bracelet: Indentations show where the bracelet once contained enamel and stone inlays. Source: Campus BC.
In the 20th century, ancient artistic forms were revitalized, combining traditions with Western technology and new materials. The earliest examples of Persian decorative arts include designs of animals and female figures modeled in clay, dating from the late seventh millennium BC. During the second millennium and mid-first millennium BC, there was a flowering of cast bronze work, reflecting a complex style that combined animal parts with fantastic creatures.
In the Achaemenid Period, the decorative arts turned to luxury items such as ornaments and vessels of gold, silver, and stone jars, while under the Sasanian Empire, the production of fabrics with symmetrical designs of animal, vegetable and hunting motifs became prominent.
Persian art and the influence of neighboring civilizations
Ancient Persian art, from its origins, was deeply influenced by neighboring civilizations, such as Mesopotamia, coexisting during Antiquity. Founded by Cyrus the Great, Persia became a vast empire that stretched from Egypt to India, incorporating unique cultural styles from Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt, and Greece.
Over the centuries, neighboring civilizations left an indelible mark on Persian art. Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek elements were visible in Persian architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts. The Achaemenid Empire (sixth to fourth centuries BC) was influenced by the Babylonians and Assyrians, while the Sassanid Empire (third to seventh centuries AD) absorbed Roman and Byzantine artistic traditions.
With the Islamic conquest of Persia in the seventh century AD, Arabic calligraphy and geometric patterns were introduced, enriching Persian art with new creative expressions. Despite external influences, Persian art maintained its distinctiveness, known for complex patterns and vibrant colors. During the Safavid Era (16th-17th centuries), Chinese art profoundly influenced Persian art, especially in miniature painting, incorporating clouds, dragons, and Chinese floral designs.
After the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE, Islam became the dominant religion in Iran, suppressing Zoroastrianism, but elements of Persian art continued to influence subsequent Islamic art.
Iranian art, rooted in the traditions of the ancient Persian Empires, includes renowned Persian carpets and miniatures, exemplifying a stylistic synthesis of Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Roman, classical Greek, and native Persian traditions.
In its three main periods, Persian art expanded its dominance throughout Central and Minor Asia, creating a rich cultural tapestry that continues to be celebrated and studied.
The Development of Painting in Persian Art
Persian miniature paintings were an important type of painting in Islamic Persia. A well-known Persian miniature painter named Kamal ud-Din Behzad rose to prominence in the second half of the 15th century. He is known for his realistic landscape paintings and bold use of color. The Herat Academy of Painting and Calligraphy appointed Behzad to the position of director. In the 13th and 14th centuries, popular paintings of hunting and mountainous landscapes served as inspiration.
In many creative civilizations, portraiture evolved because of their realistic paintings. However, when painters attempted to imitate European painting techniques in the late 1600s, Iranian artistic traditions began to deteriorate.
Metallurgy and Jewelry
The first examples of Persian decorative arts date back to the end of the seventh millennium BC, with drawings of animals and female figures modeled in clay. At the end of the second millennium BC, there was a flourishing of cast bronze work in the region south of the Caspian and in Luristan, highlighting harnesses, harnesses, horse bridles, axes, and votive objects, characterized by a complex style that combined parts of animals with fantastic creatures.
During the Achaemenid Period, decorative arts were employed in luxury items such as ornaments, gold and silver vessels, stone jars, and crafted jewelry. The technique of forging and hammering gold, adopted from the Medes, resulted in the production of rhyta, ceremonial cups made of gold and silver, known from the prehistoric cultures of the Aegean and Greece. A notable example is the Achaemenid golden rhyton with a stylized ram's head.
The Oxus Treasury, consisting of 180 pieces including reliefs, figurines, jewelry and gold and silver coins, exemplifies the diversity and complexity of Persian metallurgy in the early Persian Empire. The golden chariot and the griffin head bracelet stand out, showing the precision and influence of Egyptian, Assyrian, and Scythian styles. These works illustrate how Persian metallurgy incorporated techniques and styles from various cultures, reflecting a period of intense creativity and cultural exchange in ancient Persia.
Gold bowl from the Treasure of the Oxus Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright). Sassanid horse head. Source: site Luna y sol.
The importance of Architecture and Sculpture in Persian Art
The largest collection of Persian art, discovered in the ruins of Persepolis during the Achaemenid Period, profoundly influenced architecture. Persepolis, the capital of the First Persian Empire, was a model for successive dynasties. Persian architecture is notable for its smaller columns, elongated verticality, and peculiar design of the upper section. The columns had capitals with animal faces, different from Greek columns. The Achaemenid and Sasanian Empires had assorted styles: the first used a post and beam structure, while the second adopted arched supports. Persian sculptures, ranging from realistic to stylized, included stone reliefs, figurines, jewelry, and animal-patterned rhytons.
Sculpture in Persian Art
Sculpture was one of the most significant developments in Iranian art, with many works surviving the test of time, especially stone reliefs carved into the sides of cliffs and the walls of palaces. The inspirations for these sculptures varied widely, showing significant Mesopotamian influences and traditional European traits. Persian sculptures combined stylized and realistic aesthetics, resulting in distinctly Persian works.
Double animal capitals topped columns in Persepolis and throughout Persia. Source: Studycom website. Parthian King offering sacrifice RMN/Hervé Lewandowski (Copyright).
Persian Sculpture, Reliefs and Painting
Persian artists created magnificent sculptures using gold, silver, and decorative stones, often commissioned by kings to decorate luxurious palaces. Some emperors ordered the production of giant sculptures of themselves as a way of demonstrating power. Decorative reliefs and paintings were also common in palaces, depicting the greatness of the empire and imperial power.
Themes and Features
The sculptures, reliefs and paintings in the palaces often depicted themes from the daily lives of nobles, such as Persian religious ceremonies, as well as the great victories and military conquests of the emperors. In the Achaemenid Period, sculpture acquired a monumental characteristic. Around 515 BC, Darius I the Great had a large bas-relief panel and an inscription carved on the slopes of Behistun.
Sasanian period
The second great period of Persian art began with the Sasanian Dynasty in 226 BC. From this time, a single example of free or round-shaped sculpture survives: the colossal figure of a ghost king near Bishapur. This era continued the tradition of carving monumental reliefs that displayed the power and grandeur of the Sasanian emperors.
The art of Persian sculpture has evolved significantly over the centuries, influenced by diverse cultures and civilizations. From Achaemenid monumental reliefs to colossal Sasanian figures, Persian sculpture not only demonstrated power but also served as a visual record of Persian history and culture. The skill and creativity of Persian artists in combining different aesthetics resulted in a rich and lasting artistic heritage that is still appreciated and studied to this day.
The Architecture of the Persian Empires
Persian architecture, influenced by the Greeks, Egyptians, Medes, and Assyrians, has developed a unique identity throughout its history. Religious temples were built for Zoroastrianism, serving both religious rituals and social gatherings. Persian palaces were sumptuous, with large, decorated interior spaces supported by ornate columns.
Imposing mausoleums were erected in honor of the deceased kings, while cities such as Pasargadae, Susa and Persepolis stood out for their urban development and architectural grandeur, evidenced by their ruins.
Persian architecture had two main periods. The first was under the Achaemenids (550-331 BC), with emphasis on Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus the Great. With the arrival of the Seleucids after Alexander the Great in 331 BC, Persian architecture received Greek influences. The architectural renaissance occurred during the Sasanian Dynasty (226-641 AD), marked by palaces such as those at Firuzabad, Girra and Sarvestan, in addition to the vaulted rooms at Ctesiphon.
High relief from the staircase in Persepolis showing Medes and Persian soldiers. Note the subtle differences in the attire and style of the soldiers on each side. (Wikipedia). Offering bearer holding a lamb from Persepolis Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (copyright).
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Dynasty, which reigned in Western Asia from 550 to 330 BC, was a striking Iranian power, known for its eclectic art and architecture that combined influences from various cultures. Under the rule of Cyrus, the Great, the empire reached its zenith, unifying vast regions stretching from the Indus Valley to Thrace and Macedonia. Achaemenid art, initially developed by Cyrus in Pasargadae, reflected a mixture of pastoral, Egyptian, Assyrian, Urartian, and Greek traditions, incorporating Mesopotamian elements.
Pasargadae, the symbolic and political capital, was organized as a nomadic camp integrated into a paradisiacal garden, with structures such as the Apadana, an audience hall with double columns, standing out as an architectural landmark. Cyrus's tomb, unique in its form, combined influences from Urartian architecture and Mesopotamian ziggurats.
Achaemenid art flourished in the making of complex reliefs, working with precious metals, and building palaces and landscapes. The Persian style was distinctive for its eclectic composition, influenced by Media, Assyria, and Asiatic Greece. After the era of Cyrus, the imperial administration moved to Ecbatana and Susa, reflecting the expansion and consolidation of the empire.
The influence of the Achaemenids transcended military borders, leaving a lasting cultural legacy that redefined art and architecture in the region. His unique artistic style synthesized diverse cultural influences, demonstrating the empire's ability to assimilate and reinterpret cultural elements to create an innovative Persian aesthetic. This legacy continues to be admired for its originality and complexity, standing out as a landmark in the history of art in West Asia.
The first moment of great development of Persian architecture takes place with the Achaemenid Dynasty (550 to 331 BC). The evidence is numerous, the oldest being the ruins of Pasargadae, the capital of the reign of Cyrus II the Great. Darius I the Great built a new capital in Persepolis, a city that would later be expanded by Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I (465-425 BC). After the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great in 331 BC and the rise to power of the Seleucid Dynasty, Persian architecture imitated the characteristic style of the Greek world.
The architectural legacy of the Achaemenids is exemplarily seen in the ruins of Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Empire, located near Shiraz, Iran. This complex, elevated twelve meters and covering thirty by five hundred meters, housed halls, corridors, a large terrace, and a double staircase decorated with reliefs depicting scenes from everyday life and nature. The audience hall, Apadana, was the largest hall, with thirty-six fluted columns and capitals carved in unique shapes, notable for the "Treasury Reliefs" that emphasized the king's power and scenes from the empire.
Construction of Persepolis began under Darius I (550-486 BC), who also built a great palace in Susa, integrating materials and artists from across the empire to create a rich expression of Achaemenid art. The Apadana reliefs show provincial leaders in regional costumes, with friezes influenced by Mesopotamian art.
Persepolis flourished for almost two hundred years until it was sacked by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, followed by a fire that turned the city into a Macedonian province, marking the end of the Achaemenid Empire.
Darius I, alongside Cyrus, is recognized as one of the greatest Persian builders. He began his reign with a monumental relief at Behistun, showing Aúra-Masda presiding over his victory over the usurper Bardiya-Gautama, accompanied by a trilingual inscription detailing the organization of the empire.
Another landmark of Darius I is his tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam, a rare exemplification of Achaemenid religious architecture. Persepolis, his masterpiece, symbolizes the grandeur of the empire.
The layout of Persepolis contrasted with that of Pasargadae, with buildings organized around the Apadana (Audience Hall) and the Tatchara (Throne Room). The sides housed rooms and access areas to the palace, with an architecture that evoked nomadic tents, square plans, and ornate columns, reflecting the magnificence of Achaemenid art.
High relief from the staircase in Persepolis showing Medes and Persian soldiers. Note the subtle differences in the attire and style of the soldiers on each side. (Wikipedia).
Parthian Empire
Persian art evolved significantly during the Parthian Era, a transitional phase between the First and Second Persian Empires following the fall of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. During this period, Greek and Iranian elements coexisted, with Greek culture momentarily predominating. The Parthians, initially semi-nomadic, helped revitalize Persian art and architecture, significantly influencing Persian art after Alexander's death.
Parthian art combined Iranian and Hellenistic forms. The Parthian Empire ruled several regions outside of what Greater Iran between 247 BC and 224 AD. is now During excavations, Parthian sites are often overlooked, making it difficult to distinguish between different historical layers.
Dating Parthian artifacts is challenging, and the most significant remains come from outside the empire, such as at Hatra in modern-day Iraq, which produced the largest quantity of Parthian sculptures ever found. Despite these difficulties, Parthian art preserved several features of earlier Achaemenid works. A return to frontality in sculpture, replacing side profile representations, was a fundamental feature. Parthian art is distinctive for its strong inspiration from Hellenistic and Mesopotamian traditions, reflecting a unique fusion of cultural influences.
Iranian enamel pieces. Source: Luna y sol website. Ancient ceramics. Source: Luna y sol website.
Artistic Architecture of the Parthian Era
Parthian art, characterized by the frontality of the figures, influenced neighboring regions even after the fall of the Parthian Dynasty. In narrative representations, figures look frontally at the audience, a feature that precedes the art of medieval Europe, Late Antiquity and Byzantium. The figures in detailed costumes, covered in intricate decorations, are remarkable. Frontality, also present in Palmyran art, defines Parthian art, although there is debate about its specific origin, as there is no evidence of production outside the Middle Euphrates, suggesting a local development.
Plaster patterns were popular in buildings, covering large surfaces after the technology improved. It is possible that these patterns were inspired by carpets and fabrics, which are now almost completely destroyed. The Achaemenid rhyta continued into the Parthian Period, with more realistic terminal animals and Greek influences.
Parthian art is best understood as a style specific to the Middle Euphrates region. Parthian rock carvings and reliefs, along with plaster patterns on buildings, show great diligence and an intense sense of frontality in representations. This unique style had a lasting impact and marked the art of the region.
Tomb of Cyrus, in Pasargadae (Wikipedia). Cyrus the Great as a winged guardian figure: This stylized relief of Cyrus borrows the Egyptian style of representing the human body and proclaims the king's ethnicity and position in three languages. Source: Campus BC.
The Sasanian Empire
Ardashir I, during the Sasanian Era, initiated major construction projects that are considered some of the finest examples of Sasanian art. The Sasanians abandoned the frontal sculptures of the Parthian Era, adopting the style of profile and three-quarter view popular in the Achaemenid Era.
Sasanian art stood out for rock carvings on limestone cliffs, beautiful stone mosaics and gold- and silver-plated crockery. Silk weaving and carpet making also prospered, resulting in the export of the famous Persian carpets to Istanbul and Türkiye.
From the Sasanian Period, one monumental sculpture remains: the image of a ghost king near Bixapur. The decorative arts of this dynasty stood out in luxury items, such as gold and silver vessels and crafted jewelry. Painting also developed, with reports of Persian millionaires decorating their mansions with images of Iranian heroes.
Textile art was significant, with silks, brocades, lace, and tapestries highly valued and copied. During the Crusades, these fabrics covered relics of saints. The surviving tapestries are of immense artistic value.
Tomb of Cyrus the Great: Syncretic attributes include the tomb's pyramidal base. Source: Campus BC. Monument to the Victory of Ardacher I. Johannes Lundberg (CC BY-NC-SA)
Pottery, advanced in the Achaemenid Era, continued to develop in the Sasanian Dynasty. Dishes from this period are on display in the British Museum, Hermitage and Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sasanian art preserved ancient Persian traditions and influenced Islamic architecture, evident in the construction of the city of Baghdad.
Artistic Architecture of the Sasanian Era
Before the Muslim invasion of Persia ended in 651, the Sasanian Empire, which ruled from the third to the seventh century AD, created Sasanian art. Ardashir I overthrew the last Parthian king in 224 AD. For the next four hundred years, the next Sasanian Dynasty ruled modern Iran, Iraq, and a series of regions to the east and north.
It ruled parts of Egypt, Arabia, the Levant, and most of Anatolia at various points in antiquity. It signaled the beginning of a new era in Mesopotamia and Iran, strongly influenced by Achaemenid traditions, particularly the art of the period. But the art of the time was also influenced by other sources, including those from as far away as China and the Mediterranean.
There are a few surviving paintings from what obviously mass production was, but Sasanian art is most appreciated for its architecture, reliefs, and metalwork. There were many more internal plaster reliefs than stone ones, of which only a few pieces remain.
In contrast to the Parthian Era, free-standing sculptures were less popular at this time. A notable exception is the Colossal Statue of Shapur I (r. 240-272 AD), which was carved from a stalagmite that formed in a cave.
There are also literary references to other colossal statues of kings, now lost. The significant Sasanian rock reliefs are discussed above, while the Parthian tradition of building ornamentation in molded stucco continued to include significant figurative images.
Islamic Period
Persia was conquered by the Arabs when the Sasanian Empire fell, incorporating it into Islam and resulting in the evolution of Persian visual arts in accordance with Islamic laws. One of these laws prohibited the three-dimensional representation of living objects, leading to the immediate decline of Persian sculpture. However, Iranian decorative arts such as metallurgy, weaving, and pottery continued to flourish. Examples of embellished Islamic temples include the Great Mosque of Samarra (847 CE), the shrine of Imam Reza in Mashhad, and the Baghdad Mosque (764 CE).
After the introduction of Islam in the seventh century, architecture became the dominant form of art, while sculpture lost relevance. Painting enjoyed a renaissance between the 13th and 17th centuries and was reinvigorated in the 20th century with both Persian and Western influences. From its first constructions in 4000 BC to the Achaemenid splendor with Pasargadae and Persepolis, and the Sasanian revival with palaces such as Firuzabad and Ctesiphon, Persian art evolved under diverse cultural influences.
Tabris Blue Mosque, Iran - Pinterest
With the conquest of Persia by the Arabs in 641, Iran became part of the Islamic world, and its artists adapted to Islamic culture, which was also influenced by Iranian tradition. Architecture remained the main artistic form. Islamic tradition considered the three-dimensional representation of living beings to be idolatrous, causing the decline of sculpture. However, painting was not affected by this prohibition and experienced a period of great effervescence.
The mosque became the main architectural typology of Iran. Important examples of early Islamic architecture include the Baghdad Mosque (764), the Great Mosque of Samarra (847), and the first Na'in Mosque (10th century). After the conquest of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, Iranian architecture was renewed, erecting some of the finest buildings in the history of Iran, such as the Great Mosque of Veramin (1322), the Imam Reza Mosque in Mashhad (1418) and the Blue Mosque from Tabriz. Other important works include the mausoleum of the Mongol conqueror Tamerlane and his family in Samarkand.
Interior of the Blue Mosque of Tabris, Iran - Pinterest
The Impact of Islam on Persian Art
After the fall of the Sasanian Empire, Persia converted to Islam, resulting in changes in its visual arts to reflect Islamic norms. Persian sculpture declined due to the prohibition on depicting three-dimensional living objects, but ornamental arts such as metalwork, weaving, and pottery remained popular. Persian artists focused on the ornamentation of Islamic buildings such as the Baghdad Mosque, the Great Mosque of Samarra, and the shrine of Imam Reza in Mashhad.
Despite Islamic rule, Persian architecture maintained the use of colorful roofs with ceramic tiles in shades of blue, red, and green. Mosques and other structures often employed mosaics for decoration. Mosaics were often employed in mosques and other structures in addition to these decorations. Making colorful roofs with ceramic tiles in shades of blue, red, and green was another popular Persian architectural style that survived Islamic rule.
The Rise of Enlightenment and Calligraphy in Persian Art
With limitations on the three-dimensional representation of living beings, the production of figure drawings and paintings declined. Enlightenment, on the other hand, has become a widely practiced Islamic art form. Originating in Persia, enlightenment consisted of the ornamentation of manuscripts and sacred writings, especially the Quran.
Iranian illuminators continued to produce works until the end of the Middle Ages, reaching their peak between 1501 and 1722, during the Safavid Dynasty. The enlightenment and replication of religious art spurred the creation of decorative writing, known as calligraphy, which became an important form of artistic expression in Islamic Persia.
The production of figure drawings and paintings declined due to restrictions on the three-dimensional representation of living creatures, but illumination quickly rose to prominence as a widely practiced Islamic art form. Originating in Persia, enlightenment involved the ornamentation of manuscripts and sacred writings, especially the Quran. Iranian illuminators continued to produce works until the end of the Middle Ages, reaching their peak between 1501 and 1722, during the Safavid Dynasty.
In addition to enlightenment, the replication of religious art spurred the creation of decorative writing, known as calligraphy. Persian calligraphy developed into two forms: Nasta'liq and Shekasteh. The Nasta'liq style is recognized for its graceful curves and elegance and is widely used in poetic manuscripts and official documents. Shekasteh, developed in the 17th century, is characterized by its more fluid and broken forms, giving a dynamic aspect to writing.
Persian calligraphers not only wrote religious and literary texts, but also created independent works of art, where the beauty of letters became an aesthetic expression. Calligraphy was taught in specialized schools and appreciated for its ability to capture the essence of Persian culture through the harmony between form and content֍
֍
Links utilizados e sugeridos
֎ BCcampus
Comments