Ethiopia, located in northeastern Africa and historically known as Abyssinia, is one of the continent’s most important countries. With a rich and complex history, it has maintained continuous independence, save for a brief Italian occupation in the 20th century. Its ancient monarchy, with legendary roots in the 10th century BC, was overthrown in 1974, leading to a period of severe crises, including famine in the 1980s. Today, it is a federal republic with one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa.
The Axum Kingdom (first-seventh centuries) was a trading power connected to the Roman Empire and Asia. During the reign of Ezana in the fourth century, Christianity was adopted, making Ethiopia one of the first Christian countries in history. In addition, Addis Ababa, its capital, is home to the headquarters of the African Union and the UN Economic Commission for Africa, symbolizing colonial resistance, as Ethiopia was never colonized by European powers.
Ethiopia is culturally rich and diverse, with over eighty ethnic groups, the largest being the Oromo and Amhara. It is also home to a large Jewish community and is home to the oldest Islamic community on the continent. Recognized as one of the origins of Homo sapiens, it has one of the largest numbers of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.
Berlin Conference
The Berlin Conference, held between 1884 and 1885, brought together European powers to regulate the colonization and division of Africa. Without the presence of African representatives, the imperialist powers (such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Belgium, and others) drew artificial borders, ignoring local ethnicities and cultures. The aim was to avoid conflicts between the European powers as they competed for territories. The conference resulted in the intensification of the African "scramble for territory", leading to the partition of Africa and the establishment of colonies, with profound consequences for the African people, such as exploitation, repression, and social disruption. |
With a geography dominated by the Highlands and the Rift Valley, Ethiopia played an essential role in human evolution and the formation of ancient civilizations, standing out for its stone-carved churches and coffee, its significant contribution to the world.
Land of many names and ancient origins
The territory of Ethiopia, throughout history also called Abyssinia, Axum or Land of Punt, has a rich cultural and historical heritage. The current name derives from the Greek Ethiopia, which means "land of burned faces", referring to the dark skin of its inhabitants.
Used since Homer, in the eighth century BC, the term was made official in 1943 by Emperor Haile Selassie I. Abyssinia, widely used by Europeans until modern times, comes from the Arabic Habasha and indicates the diversity of the local populations. Axum refers to the powerful Ancient Ethiopian Empire, while the Land of Punt, mentioned in Egyptian sources, corresponded to the Horn of Africa region.
UNESCO world heritage sites
Africa is home to a rich diversity of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including both natural and cultural landmarks. Highlights include the Serengeti National Park (Tanzania), known for its wildebeest migrations; the Okavango Delta (Botswana), one of the world’s largest wetlands; and the Pyramids of Giza (Egypt), iconic symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization. Cultural sites include Lalibela (Ethiopia), with rock-cut churches, and Timbuktu (Mali), an important center of medieval Islamic learning. In addition, Robben Island (South Africa) symbolizes the struggle against apartheid, while Djenné (Mali) preserves traditional adobe architecture. |
Prehistory and the cradle of humanity
Ethiopia is considered the cradle of humanity due to important fossil discoveries. In 2006, the fossil of "Selam", a 3.3-million-year-old Australopithecus afarensis girl, was found, the oldest known child skeleton. Other discoveries, such as the fossils of Homo sapiens idaltu and Homo sapiens Idalu, up to 230,000 years old, reinforce the theory that the region was crucial for the emergence of modern Homo sapiens.
Ethiopian prehistory dates back four million years, with Ardipithecus Ethiopia, a vegetarian primate that evolved into Australopithecus afarensis, a species that already walked upright. "Lucy", the most famous fossil of this lineage, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar region and dated between 3.3 and 3.2 million years ago.
Homo sapiens, the species to which all modern humans belong, emerged approximately 300,000 years ago in Africa. It was characterized by an advanced brain, complex language capacity, and abstract reasoning. Its anatomy included an upright posture, dexterous hands, and a rounded skull with a reduced face. Homo sapiens, a social species, formed organized communities and developed diverse cultures, advanced technologies, and symbolic systems, such as art and religion. Its adaptability allowed it to colonize every environment on the planet. It is the only surviving hominid, having shared the planet with extinct species such as Homo neanderthalensis. |
Lucy is the most famous fossil of Australopithecus afarensis, a species ancestral to humans. Discovered in 1974 in the Hadar region of Ethiopia, Lucy lived about 3.2 million years ago. Her skeleton, preserved in approximately 40%, revealed important transitional characteristics between primates and modern humans. She was about 1.10 meters tall, had a small brain (like that of chimpanzees), but already had an upright posture and the ability to walk on two legs. Lucy's discovery transformed the understanding of human evolution, demonstrating that bipedalism preceded the increase in brain size in the evolutionary line of hominids. |
Monolith is a natural formation or artificial structure composed of a single, massive stone. In nature, it is often formed by geological processes, resulting in impressive, exposed blocks of rock, such as Uluru in Australia. In historical and architectural contexts, monoliths can be carved for ceremonial, religious or decorative purposes, such as obelisks and statues. The rock-cut churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia, are a notable example of an artificial monolith. The term is also used figuratively to describe something imposing, indivisible, and enduring, such as an institution or ideology of great cultural or historical influence. |
In addition to fossils, stone tools, cave art and megaliths demonstrate human presence throughout prehistory. In the first two millennia BC, agricultural practices, livestock farming and stone sculptures were common, although metallurgy was not mastered.
Cultural evolution culminated with the emergence of the Axumite civilization in the 1st century BC, while Neolithic cultures persisted until the 14th century in the center and south of the country. These discoveries consolidate Ethiopia as an essential landmark in human evolution and the development of ancient civilizations.
Timeline - Empires and Governments of Ethiopia
Kingdom of D'mt (c. 980 BC – c. 400 BC) |
֎ First significant kingdom in the region of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. ֎ Influenced by southern Arabian culture. |
Pre-Axumite Period (ninth–fourth centuries BC) |
֎ Kingdom of Daamot (or DMT), considered the first known Ethiopian kingdom, located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea |
Proto-Axumite Period (fourth–first centuries BC) |
֎ Transition to the formation of the Kingdom of Axum, with sociopolitical and cultural changes |
Axum Kingdom (c. 1st century BC – seventh century AD) |
֎ Rise as a trading power on the Red Sea. ֎ Christianity adopted as the official religion in the fourth century under King Ezana. ֎ Decline with the expansion of Islam and the weakening of trade routes. |
Period of Fragmentation (seventh – 11th centuries) |
֎ Smaller kingdoms and local dynasties replace Axum. ֎ Christianity remains the unifying element. |
Zagwe Kingdom (1137 – 1270) |
֎ Founded by Mara Takla Haymanot. ֎ Lalibela orders the construction of the famous rock-cut churches. ֎ Decline due to opposition from factions claiming a legitimate Solomonic lineage. |
Solomonid Dynasty (1270 – 1974) |
֎ Founded by Yekuno-Amlak. ֎ Claims direct descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. ֎ Territorial expansion and rivalry with Muslim states. ֎ Prolonged period of governance interspersed with political instability. |
Modern State (19th century – 1974) |
֎ Unification under Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913). ֎ Victory at the Battle of Adwa (1896) against Italy. ֎ Government of Haile Selassie (r. 1930–1974), followed by the military coup of 1974. |
Derg and Communist Regime (1974–1991) |
֎ Socialist military junta led by Mengistu Haile Mariam. ֎ Violence, repression, and the period known as the "Red Terror." |
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1991–present) |
֎ Transition to a multi-party federal government. ֎ Ethnic conflicts and political disputes continue to mark the contemporary landscape. |
The Land of Punt and its Cultural and Historical Significance
The Land of Punt, mentioned in Egyptian records, was famous for its supply of ebony and myrrh, and was possibly located in Ethiopia or Eritrea. Expeditions, such as that of Queen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, provide evidence of its ancient trade relations. The work Kebra Nagast cemented Ethiopia’s importance in Christianity by recounting the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon and the arrival of the Ark of the Covenant. Carved churches in Lalibela and monasteries in Tigray highlight Ethiopia’s architectural and artistic genius, combining Byzantine influences with unique elements, strengthening its role as a spiritual and cultural center.
Despite historical challenges, such as Muslim attacks led by Ahmad Gragn in the 16th century and colonial tensions with Italy in the 19th century, Ethiopia has maintained its artistic and spiritual tradition. Stone monuments, such as the colossal stelae of Axum, bear witness to their heritage. Trilingual texts in Axum record Ezana's conversion to Christianity. Conquests in Yemen consolidated Ethiopia's cultural achievement and artistic legacy.
The Kebra Nagast (or Glory of the Kings) is an Ethiopian literary and religious work written in Ge'ez, considered a fundamental text for Ethiopian Christianity. Compiled between the 13th and 14th centuries, it narrates the origin of the Solomonic dynasty, stating that the Ethiopian emperors descended from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. The work describes the queen's visit to Jerusalem, the birth of her son Menelik I, and the transfer of the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. The Kebra Nagast blends biblical tradition, history, and legend, and is a central piece of Ethiopian cultural and religious identity. |
There were the Pre-Axumite (ninth to fourth centuries BC) and Proto-Axumite (fourth to first centuries BC) periods. The Pre-Axumite period is marked by the Kingdom of Daamot (or DMT), considered the first known Ethiopian kingdom, located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. Epigraphic records indicate a strong influence of the Sabeans, Semitic traders from the south, reflected in Semitic names and the use of the title “Mukarrib” by their kings. However, there is uncertainty about the Indigenous or mixed origin of the population and about the relationship between Daamot and the future Kingdom of Axum, whether as a successor, union of states or conquest.
The Proto-Axumite Period marked the transition to the formation of the Axum Kingdom, with sociopolitical and cultural changes that included a reduction in Sabean influences and greater exchange with the Nile Valley. Proto-Axumite kingdoms possibly coexisted and shared cultural traits such as agricultural practices, the use of Ge'ez, and Asian elements in art and religion.
Sabian influence in Ethiopia
Sabean influence in Ethiopia dates to the first millennium BCE, when people from the Sabaean Kingdom, located in present-day Yemen, established trade and cultural contact with the Axum region. This interaction brought significant influences, such as monumental stone-block architecture, Semitic writing (which evolved into the Ge'ez alphabet), and religious practices that blended with local traditions. Elements of Sabean culture can be seen at archaeological sites, such as the ancient temples at Yeha. The fusion of these traditions helped shape Ethiopian cultural and historical identity, with lasting impacts on its society and religion. |
Kingdom of Dʿmt
Around the eighth century BC, the Kingdom of Dʿmt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital at Yeha. Historians believe that this civilization was African, with limited Sabian influence. The Ge'ez language, the oldest Semitic language in Ethiopia, is not derived from the Sabians, indicating a Semitic presence in the region since 2000 BC. After the fall of Dʿmt in the fourth century BC, smaller kingdoms dominated the country until the rise of the Axumite Empire in the first century BC. The forerunner of modern Ethiopia, the Dʿmt Empire was one of the great global powers, alongside Rome, Persia, and China.
Axum Kingdom
The Axum Kingdom (first century BC – seventh century AD) emerged as a strategic power in the Horn of Africa due to its control of vital trade routes across the Red Sea that connected Rome, India, and the Middle East. With a prosperous economy based on the export of ivory, gold, spices and slaves, its main port, Adulis, was essential for maritime trade. Axum was the first sub-Saharan kingdom to mint coins, a symbol of its economic strength.
Christianity was adopted in the fourth century under King Ezana. Axum thus became one of the first Christian nations in history. Frumentius, a Tyrian missionary, influenced Ezana's conversion to Christianity and established the first religious ties with the Egyptian Church. The king introduced coins with the cross, consolidating the new faith in the kingdom. Later, in the fifth century, nine Byzantine saints arrived in Axum, founded monasteries, and translated Christian texts with the aim of strengthening evangelization.
Another important monarch was Kaleb, known for his military campaign in Yemen and for being canonized in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. His reign marked the beginning of a prolonged crisis, aggravated by the cessation of coinage and commercial instability. Axum's decline intensified with the expansion of Islam in the seventh century, although the kingdom remained Christian after offering hospitality to the followers of Muhammad in 615–616.
The title Mukarrib, originally used by the kings of the Kingdom of Saba in the Arabian Peninsula, also influenced Ethiopian rulers during the pre-Axumite period. The Mukarrib of Saba served both religious and political functions, serving as intermediaries between the gods and the people. With the intense commercial and cultural relations between Saba and the Ethiopian region, this designation was adapted to symbolize the sacred authority of the local leaders. Traces of this influence are seen in the adoption of religious practices and symbols of power by ancient Ethiopian kings, highlighting the importance of the Sabaean heritage in the formation of the Ethiopian monarchical tradition. |
The fall of the Axum Kingdom was caused by factors such as agricultural overexploitation, depletion of natural resources and changes in trade routes, which culminated in a period known as the Dark Ages.
Trade, architecture, and religion
Axum emerged as a strategic trading center, exporting ivory, gold, spices, and slaves, while importing silk and glass. Adulis, its port on the Red Sea, was crucial to maritime trade. The kingdom was one of the first states to adopt Christianity in the fourth century under King Ezana, becoming one of the pioneering Christian nations in history.
Axumite architecture is marked by impressive monoliths and funerary stelae, with some structures exceeding thirty meters in height. The Axumites developed the Ge'ez script, and this influenced modern Ethiopian languages. Religious texts in Ge'ez are central to the history of Eastern Christianity.
Ethiopian tradition, recorded in the Kebra Nagast, associates Axum with the Queen of Sheba, who is said to have visited King Solomon and given rise to the Solomonid Dynasty with her son Menelik I. Axum maintained trade and diplomatic relations with Rome, India and the Sassanid Empire, and was considered one of the four superpowers of the time.
The decline of the kingdom began in the seventh century, driven by changes in trade routes, depletion of natural resources and Islamic expansion in the Red Sea. Nevertheless, Axum's heritage remained influential in medieval Ethiopian history.
The Legend of Judith
The Ethiopian legend of Judith (or Gudit) tells the story of a warrior queen who led a devastating revolt against the Kingdom of Axum in the 10th century AD. She is described as a ruthless figure, responsible for destroying churches, burning the capital, and eliminating the Axumite royal family. Although the historicity of Judith is debated, her figure has become a symbol of resistance and change in Ethiopian tradition. Some versions suggest that she belonged to the Beta Israel Jewish community, while others see her as a pagan or dissident Christian figure, reflecting the political and religious rivalries of the period. |
With the rise of the Zagwe dynasty in the 11th century, political power passed to the Agaw. This period is marked by the Reign of Lalibela, famous for building a complex of rock-cut churches. Although the Zagwe preserved Axumite traditions, they faced discontent due to internal divisions and regional challenges, which led to the dynasty's fall in 1270.
Zagwe Kingdom
The Zagwe dynasty ruled Ethiopia from the 12th to 13th centuries (c. 1137–1270), succeeding the decline of the Axum Kingdom and preceding the restoration of the Solomonid Dynasty. The name "Zagwe" derives from the Agaw ethnic group, predominant in the Lasta region, where the capital of the kingdom, Roha, was located, later renamed Lalibela.
Founded by Mara Takla Haymanot, a military commander who seized power under unclear circumstances, the dynasty became known for its support of Christianity and the monumental rock-cut churches of Lalibela. King Lalibela was noted for his religious devotion and architectural projects that symbolized a "new Jerusalem." These buildings include the Church of St. George and more than 1,500 other rock-cut churches, considered landmarks of Ethiopian Christian art.
Rock-cut churches of Lalibela
The rock-cut churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia are a remarkable example of religious architecture. Built in the 12th century during the reign of King Lalibela, they were carved directly into the rock to represent a “new Jerusalem.” The complex includes 11 monolithic churches, distinguished by their craftsmanship and spirituality. The churches are a symbol of Ethiopian Christianity and continue to be places of active worship. Recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, these structures reflect the cultural and religious importance of Ethiopia and the dedication of the ancient craftsmen who built them. |
Despite its cultural achievements, the dynasty faced opposition from factions claiming direct lineage to the ancient Axum Dynasty associated with Solomonic myth. This rivalry culminated in 1270, when Yekuno-Amlak, a supposed descendant of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, deposed the last Zagwe king and founded the Solomonid Dynasty for centuries.
Although viewed by the Solomonids as "usurpers," the Zagwe Dynasty played a key role in preserving and continuing Ethiopia's cultural and religious traditions during a period of historical transition. It also expanded its territory to the west and south, conquering pagan regions and maintaining Christian influence in the region.
Mara Takla Haymanot was an important 10th-century Ethiopian ruler and nobleman, known as the founder of the Zagwe Dynasty, which ruled Ethiopia after the decline of the Solomonic dynasty. He established his power base in the Lasta region, home to the famous city of Lalibela, known for its monolithic rock-cut churches. Takla Haymanot is remembered for establishing Christianity in the region and maintaining a centralized administration during a period of instability. His name, "Takla Haymanot," means "Planter of Faith." The Zagwe dynasty is often associated with great cultural and religious achievements in Ethiopian history. |
Solomonid Dynasty and the Medieval Kingdom of Abyssinia
The Solomonid Dynasty, founded in 1270 AD by Yekuno-Amlak, claimed descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, legitimizing its power based on the Kebra Negast. According to tradition, Solomon's son Menelik brought the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. Its roots go back to the Axum Kingdom (third to sixth centuries AD), known for its trade with Egypt and Arabia, and for being the first Christian African state in 350 AD. The Axum period saw the creation of the Ge'ez script and the Church of Maryam Tsion, where the Ark of the Covenant was supposedly located, although this has never been confirmed.
Although this descent is disputed, kings such as Zara Yakob (1434-1468) reinforced the belief by declaring themselves "sons of David, sons of Solomon, sons of Menelik." This sacred connection gave the kingdom a unique Christian identity, allowing the Ethiopian people to see themselves as the "second Israel" in a region that was predominantly Muslim or practiced traditional African religions. The Solomonid capital was in Amhara, near Addis Ababa.
Home of the Ark of the Covenant
For many Ethiopians, the Ark of the Covenant, the sacred chest containing the Ten Commandments given to Moses, is not lost but is kept in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Aksum. Tradition holds that the Ark was brought to Ethiopia by the Queen of Sheba after her visit to King Solomon around 950 B.C. The epic Kebra Nagast tells how Sheba, seduced by Solomon, bore a son, Menelik, who later traveled to Jerusalem and, after a deal with Solomon, brought the Ark to Aksum. The story goes that an Israelite stole the Ark, leaving a forgery, and Menelik decided to keep it in Ethiopia, believing it to be God’s will. The Ark is considered sacred by Ethiopian Orthodox Christians and is fiercely protected. This was evident in the recent conflict in northern Ethiopia when Eritrean soldiers attempted to loot the church. Local youths rushed to protect the Ark, facing off against the invaders in a desperate struggle to ensure the safety of the sacred treasure. Devotion to the Ark remains a symbol of faith and identity for Ethiopians. |
The empire expanded from Shoa in the south to Lake Tana north, consolidating overland trade routes along the Blue Nile, which were more profitable than coastal trade. Despite Christian dominance, traditional African religious practices, such as sacrifices, persisted, demonstrating a coexistence between Christianity and local customs.
The Solomonid lineage and the symbolic presence of the Ark of the Covenant in Axum were central to the coronation of kings and the identity of the empire. Religious legitimacy and territorial expansion shaped the Kingdom of Abyssinia as a cultural and religious stronghold in East Africa.
Haile Selassie I (1892–1975) was the last emperor of Ethiopia, ruling from 1930 to 1974. Known as the "Lion of the Tribe of Judah" and revered as a messianic figure by the Rastafarian movement, he consolidated power and modernized Ethiopia, promoting political and social reforms. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1936), he resisted the Italian invasion and appealed to the League of Nations for help. After the defeat, he went into exile but returned to the throne in 1941 with the support of the Allied forces. His reign ended in 1974 with a military coup, which established a socialist republic ֎
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