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Achaemenid Persian Empire, c. 550-330 BC
Descendants of the Indo-Europeans, the Persians populated the region east of Mesopotamia around 6000 B.C. These migrations continued until 2000 B.C. Around 1000 B.C., a group of Indo-European nomads called Persians throughout the ancient Western world, settled in Persis, in the southern region of Iran.
In present-day Iran, the Persians cohabited with other peoples, such as the Medes. Around 1400 BC, two Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups, Medes to the north and Persians to the south, began to inhabit the Iranian plateau. Although they spoke the same language and shared beliefs and customs, they did not recognize each other as a common identity. For centuries, the Assyrian Empire dominated the region, forcing Medes and Persians to pay tribute. In the seventh century BC, the Medes became independent and founded Ecbatana, their capital. After the fall of Assyria in 605 BC, Cyaxares, king of the Medes, expanded his rule into western Iran.
Persia is the name by which the ancient Greeks designated the territory governed by the Achaemenid kings. The Achaemenid Dynasty, named after Achaemenes, who ruled Persis from 705 to 675 BC, occupied a region limited to the west by the Tigris River and to the south by the Persian Gulf. The Achaemenid Persian Empire began its expansion in 550 BC after defeating the Kingdom of the Medes and lasted until 330 BC, profoundly influencing the history of Eastern Antiquity.
Around 550 BC, Cyrus II organized a rebellion and took the capital of the Medes. He was the great-great-grandson of Achaemenes, the first Persian king, whose name gave rise to the name Achaemenid Persian Empire. Therefore, the first king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire was Cyrus II, also known as Cyrus the Great. The name "Cyrus II" distinguishes him from "Cyrus I", his grandfather, king of Anshan before the founding of the Persian Empire. To commemorate his victory over Astyages, Cyrus II built the city of Pasargadae on the site of the battle, in honor of his tribe. With the defeat of Astyages, Cyrus II became ruler of the Ancient Median Empire, consolidating his power by subjugating lesser rulers.
Cyrus II began military campaigns to expand his domain, conquering Lydia, Babylon, and other cities in Mesopotamia. The empire stretched across vast areas of Asia, Africa, and Europe, including parts of present-day Iran, Turkey, Egypt, Greece, and Pakistan, peacefully dominating regions such as Phoenicia and Jerusalem. From 550 BC to 500 BC, it became the first global empire, ruling significant portions of the Ancient World.
After the death of Cyrus II, Cambyses II conquered Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica in 525 BC. In 522 BC, a coup d'état led by Guamata, in the name of Bardiya, was overthrown by Darius I, consolidating territorial control. Darius II the Great and his son Xerxes I expanded imperial rule, spanning from Mesopotamia to the east of the Indus Valley, peaking with 44% of the world's population under their rule. This expansion included parts of Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Central Asia, and northern Arabia.
Army of the Immortals
Cyrus II created an organized army to impose national authority, despite the ethno-cultural diversity of the subject nations, the vast geographic dimension of the Persian Empire and the constant struggle for power between regional competitors. The professional army included the "Immortals" unit, made up of 10,000 highly trained heavy infantry soldiers. For every soldier killed, another immediately took his place. Under Darius I the Great, Persia became the first empire to inaugurate and deploy an imperial navy, consisting of Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cypriots, and Greeks. The Persians were also known for using elephants in battle.
Government and commerce in the Persian Empire
Detailed records on Persian social organization during the Achaemenid Dynasty are scarce, but it is known that the society was agrarian, with three main classes: military/aristocrats, priests (magicians) and peasants/shepherds. The king held political and religious powers. At the top of the social pyramid were the king and his family, followed by the military / aristocrats, priests and, at the bottom, peasants, and shepherds.
Persian society followed a patriarchal descent. The administration was organized into satrapies, governed by satraps who followed the king's instructions. To ensure loyalty and efficiency, the emperor's trusted officials, known as "the king's eyes and ears," supervised the satraps.
The satrapies were connected by a 2,500-kilometer highway, notably the Royal Road, from Susa to Sardis. Mounted messengers could reach the most remote areas within fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence provided by the satrapy system, royal inspectors regularly visited the empire and reported on local conditions using this route.
Cyrus II created a multistate empire, initially encompassing all the civilized states of the ancient Near East and eventually most of southwest and Central Asia, plus the Caucasus region, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River. Control of this vast territory involved a centralized government, with territorial monarchs serving as proxy rulers for the emperor, and an extensive system of trade.
Under the Achaemenids, trade was intense and had an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of goods within the confines of the Persian Empire. Tariffs on trade, along with agriculture and tribute, were the empire's main sources of revenue.
Economic characteristics of the Persian Empire
The Persians were adept at a diversity of economic activities, including agriculture, fishing, handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining for metals and precious stones. Furthermore, they demonstrated skill in commerce, evidenced by the construction of paved roads to facilitate transportation and communication.
Socioeconomic development occurred significantly with imperial expansion, influenced by contact with different peoples. Cyrus II, for example, adopted a policy of cultural tolerance and collaboration with local elites, while maintaining Persian cultural identity.
The Persian economy was based on the collection of taxes and the control of local productive resources by the central power and the various layers of imperial rulers. With the consolidation of the empire, areas that previously had independent economic development were unified, establishing an interconnection that previously only occurred through commercial, diplomatic, or military relations.
By incorporating this diversity, the Persian Empire developed elements that influenced local economies throughout the Middle East region:
Fiscal and tax unification - all satrapies were obliged to pay taxes to the empire, however, the value and nature of the taxes varied according to the relationship with the central power.
Introduction of currency - the silver and gold daric became the official currency of the Persian Empire, whose value and weight were guaranteed by the royal seal.
Dominion of productive resources by Imperial authorities - the monarch, the royal family, the nobility, satraps, and Persian courtiers were favored in the distribution and possession of land.
State control of strategic resources - distinct levels of the imperial government sought to control access to water and develop advanced irrigation systems to promote agricultural development in more arid regions.
Expansion of Commercial Routes - the State invested in expanding and improving the road network, connecting several regions. This integration led to the development of commercial relations with more distant areas, facilitating the creation of routes to the Far East and Europe.
Economic reforms of Darius I
Darius I introduced the daric, a standardized gold coin, which boosted economic activity and simplified commercial transactions. This currency allowed the collection of taxes and tributes in cash, concentrating the empire's wealth. Additionally, Darius I undertook the construction of Persepolis, incorporating artistic and architectural styles from across the Persian Empire, while improving existing cities with new construction and repairs.
During the reign of Darius I, the Royal Road, which stretched from Sardis to Susa, was completed, providing a quick and relatively safe route of communication for traders. Furthermore, Darius I established a spy network to ensure the loyalty of the satraps and to monitor any signs of rebellion.
Religious tolerance and maintenance of local traditions
Zoroastrianism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster, is one of the oldest religions with a dualistic faith. Ahura Mazda, Lord of Wisdom, and the Supreme Being, represented the principle of good, while his twin brother, Ahriman, god of darkness, destruction, death, evil and disorder, wishes to lead men to debauchery and corruption. Zoroastrianism had a theocratic character and had a relevant political role in the hands of the king. Ahura Mazda.
Originated in the second millennium BC, it became the official religion of the pre-Islamic Iranian empires, lasting until the Muslim conquest in 650 AD, when it was suppressed. Currently, it is estimated that there are around 2.6 million Zoroastrians, in India and Iran.
The sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, compiled in the Avesta, include the Gathas and the Yasna. Zoroaster taught monotheism, free will and responsibility for choices. Evil is personified as Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman. Water and fire play central roles in purification ceremonies, symbolizing wisdom, and life.
Zoroastrianism emphasizes active participation in life through charitable deeds, rejecting monasticism or monasticism, the practice of abdication of men's common goals in favor of religious practice. Although using different expressions, several religions have monastic elements: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Taoism and Jainism. It is believed that Ahura Mazda will triumph over evil, resulting in cosmic renewal and the resurrection of the dead, culminating in the union of all creation with Ahura Mazda.
Cyrus II understood the importance of maintaining conquered regions in favorable economic conditions, allowing local rulers to remain in their positions and the population to continue practicing their religious traditions. This policy of tolerance not only ensured stability but also significantly reduced the possibility of rebellions.
King Cyrus II adopted a proactive policy toward the Jews, allowing those who had been displaced by the Babylonians to return to Israel and establish a tributary state. This strategy was calculated to ensure Jewish loyalty and promote the continuation of the policy of religious tolerance.
Cyrus II's policies regarding the treatment of minority religions have been extensively documented in Babylonian texts as well as Jewish sources. His general attitude of religious tolerance throughout the Persian Empire is a point of emphasis, although it is still debated whether this was implemented on his own initiative or whether it represented a continuation of Babylonian and Assyrian policies.
Government of Cyrus II, The Great (559-530 BC)
Cyrus II's reign lasted between 29 and 31 years, until his death in battle in 530 BC, he ruled the vast Achaemenid Empire employing regional monarchs known as satraps, each responsible for a region designated as a satrapy. Fundamental governance was based on the satrapies' loyalty and obedience to the central power, represented by the king, and the fulfillment of tax obligations. Furthermore, Cyrus II established connections between the various regions of the empire through an innovative postal system that made use of an extensive road network and relay stations.
He was notable for his achievements in the fields of human rights and politics, influencing both Eastern and Western civilizations. The ancient Babylonians called him "The Liberator", while the modern nation of Iran considers him as their "father".
At Pasargadae he erected a tomb and a palace, framed by a garden irrigated by a myriad of water channels. The result was a true desert oasis that, with its architectural representations of the cultures subjugated by Persian rule, reflected the Persian Empire on a scaled-down scale.
Royal rhetoric emphasized that all conquered nations were united in service to the Great King, whose laws must be obeyed and whose majesty must be defended. The monarch enjoyed the support of the great god Ahura Mazda, who granted the king the gift of kingship to stabilize world order, as unrest and rebellion were associated with cosmic disorder.
The Cyrus Cylinder II
The Cyrus II Cylinder is a remarkable sixth century BC artifact made of clay that stands as one of the earliest manifestations of universal human rights and a symbol of humanitarian governance. Cyrus II, known for his policy of tolerance and respect for the cultures and religions of conquered peoples, allowed them to maintain their traditions, if they demonstrated loyalty to the Persian Empire.
The Cyrus Cylinder II
Discovered in the ruins of Babylon, in Iraq, in 1879, the cylinder offers insights into the fall of Babylon and details the genealogy of Cyrus II, in addition to his policy of repatriating the Jews after the Babylonian captivity. Although its historical interpretation is subject to debate, many scholars consider it as evidence of Cyrus II's policy of allowing exiles to return to their lands and rebuild their temples. As a piece of imperial propaganda, the cylinder seeks to legitimize Cyrus II's conquest of Babylon by portraying him as the chosen champion of the god Marduk.
Cambyses II (530-522 BC)
After the death of his father, Cyrus II the Great, in a battle against the Massagetaes in Central Asia, Cambyses II ascended the Persian throne. His reign, which lasted from 529 to 522 BC, was marked by a continuous expansion of the Persian Empire. In 525 BC, he conquered Egypt, defeating Pharaoh Psametic III at the Battle of Pelusium. However, his attempts to invade Nubia and launch a campaign against Carthage were unsuccessful.
Although Greek sources portray him as a mad despot, who allegedly cruelly oppressed his subjects and disrespected the religious traditions of conquered nations, archaeological evidence found in Egypt suggests a different picture. Negative descriptions of Cambyses II by ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus may be influenced by cultural biases. Inscriptions from the Serapeum of Memphis (524 BC) indicate that Cambyses II respected religious rituals, such as the honor given to the death of a sacred bull.
Darius I, Implacable and Formidable (522-486 BC)
After the death of Cambyses II in 522 BC, when facing a usurper who pretended to be his brother, Darius I rose to power, faced, and overcame several claimants to the throne and regional revolts, consolidating his rule.
The reign of Darius I marked a period of splendor for the Persian Empire, characterized by notable engineering works, such as the construction of roads that connected the important cities of Pasargadae, Susa, and Persepolis. Darius I controlled vast territories after overcoming several revolts and continued expansion, conquering northern India and Thrace.
Contemporary Persian texts testify to the extent of Darius I's power and his determination to defend it. According to one source, the god Ahura Mazda himself granted Darius I "the kingship of this vast Land with many lands: Persia, Media and other lands of other languages, of the mountains and the plains, on this side of the ocean and on the other side of the ocean, and on this side of the desert and on the other side of the desert."
Darius I consolidated his power and expanded the Achaemenid Empire to its maximum, implementing crucial administrative reforms, such as the division of the empire into satrapies, each governed by a satrap directly appointed by him. To ensure the satraps' loyalty and avoid the concentration of regional power, he separated political and military functions.
Furthermore, Darius I was responsible for the construction of great roads that connected the capitals of the empire - Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae - and for the introduction of the gold daric, the first international monetary unit, boosting trade and artisanal production. His initiatives also included the beginning of the Medical Wars (499 BC-459 BC) to subjugate the city-states of Ionia.
Using religion as an instrument of legitimacy, Darius I stated that Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian god, had chosen him to rule the world. He assumed the title of Shahanshah, King of Kings, to highlight his rule over a diverse empire. Darius I introduced a regular taxation system and a standardized currency, the daric, unifying the economy and built the Royal Road to facilitate communication and trade.
During his reign, the Persian Empire expanded into India, Thrace, and Macedonia, facing internal revolts and the Ionian Revolt. However, his attempt to invade Greece failed at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.
Behistun inscription
Shortly after his coronation, Darius I ordered the inscription of a text on a limestone cliff of Mount Behistun in present-day Iran. The Behistun Inscription, written by Darius I himself, assumed crucial linguistic significance as a key piece in the decipherment of cuneiform writing.
The text begins by tracing the lineage of Darius I and describes a series of events following the deaths of the two previous Achaemenid emperors, Cyrus II the Great and his son Cambyses II. Darius I faced nineteen battles in one year and suppressed numerous rebellions throughout Persian territory.
About fifteen meters high and twenty-five meters wide, the inscription presents three versions of the text in three different cuneiform languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a form of Akkadian). Scholars were able to compare these scripts and use them to decipher ancient languages, making the Behistun Inscription as valuable to the study of cuneiform as the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Darius I's formidable reputation was not limited to military power alone. He ensured the implementation of engineering and construction projects throughout the Persian Empire. In Egypt, he built a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea. In Persepolis, in the heart of Iran, he began a vast building program that transformed the city into his ceremonial capital. Furthermore, the Elamite city of Susa in western Iran was revitalized when it became the administrative capital of the Persian Empire.
Xerxes I (486-465 BC)
Known as Xerxes the Great, Xerxes I, reigned over the Achaemenid Empire from 486 BC until his death in 465 BC. He led the Second Medical War, a major invasion of Greece in 480 BC, including famous battles such as Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. Despite notable victories such as the capture of Athens, his fleet was defeated at Salamis and his army at Plataea, ending Persian expansion in Greece.
Xerxes I also oversaw construction projects, contributing to the development of Persepolis and infrastructure works throughout the Persian Empire. He is described in Greek sources as powerful but also cruel. His defeat in Greece was a turning point in history, consolidating the freedom of the Greek city-states.
Despite this, the Achaemenid Persian Empire continued to exist after his death, but his campaigns left a lasting mark on historical memory as a period of significant conquests and challenges. Xerxes I is remembered as much for his military campaigns as his contributions to Persian architecture and infrastructure, but his defeat in Greece marked a pivotal point in ancient history, shaping relations between East and West.
Darius III (336 BC to 330 BC)
The last king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire was Darius III, ruling from approximately 336 BC until his death in 330 BC. He ascended the throne following the death of Artaxerxes III and the brief succession of Artaxerxes IV.
Darius III's reign was marked by significant challenges, most notably the growing threat posed by Alexander the Great of Macedon. Assuming the throne in a period of internal turmoil and political instability, Darius III faced the formidable task of defending his empire against Macedonian expansion.
Under his rule, Persian and Macedonian forces participated in a series of conflicts, known as the Greco-Persian Wars. The most famous of these battles was the Battle of Issus, in 333 BC, where Darius III faced Alexander in the open field. Despite a considerable numerical advantage, the Macedonian armies decisively defeated the Persian forces.
In 334 BC, Alexander of Macedon invaded the Persian Empire and, in 330 BC, the Persian king Darius III was assassinated by one of his generals. Alexander claimed the Persian throne and maintained the existing administration to govern his vast empire. After his death, his general Seleucus took over much of the territory that had belonged to the Achaemenid Persian Empire, perpetuating Persian influence in the region.
After the defeat at Issus, Darius III continued to face Alexander in a series of confrontations, including the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, where he was again defeated. The capture of key cities such as Susa and Persepolis by Macedonian forces further weakened Persian rule.
The death of Darius III in 330 BC, in circumstances not yet fully clarified, marked the end of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and the complete rise of the Macedonian Empire led by Alexander. Although he fought valiantly to maintain the integrity of his empire, Darius III is often remembered as the last great king of the Achaemenid Dynasty, whose reign witnessed the decline and fall of one of the greatest powers of antiquity.
Decline of the Persian Empire
The decline of the Persian Empire began after military defeats against the Greeks. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered the Persian Empire after several victorious campaigns, but the Persian cultural and administrative legacy continued to influence future civilizations.
By 530 BC, the Persian Empire extended across Asia and Egypt. King Darius I faced revolts, including the Ionian Revolt, which was suppressed with the destruction of Miletus. Darius I also attempted to conquer Greek territories during the First Persian War, but was defeated at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC).
After the death of Darius I, his son Xerxes I continued his attempts to annex Greek territories in the Second Medical War, but was defeated in decisive battles such as that of Salamis (480 BC). The failure of Xerxes I marked the end of Achaemenid expansion.
Over time, the Achaemenid kings raised taxes and resorted to economic and political strategies to interfere in Greece rather than direct military invasions. This provoked attempts by regional rulers to escape Achaemenid control, weakening the empire internally.
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