Pre-Columbian America - Introduction

campusaraujo
6 days ago
11 min read

Pre-Columbian America refers to the civilizations and cultures that existed in the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans, especially with Christopher Columbus in 1492. This term encompasses thousands of years of Indigenous history, from the first migrations across the Bering Strait to cultural transformations such as the Neolithic Revolution, long before the imposition of European dominance in the 16th century. The academic definition of the term is broad, including everything from nomadic societies to large, urbanized empires.

The pre-Columbian era is divided into three main phases: Paleoamerican (or Paleoindian), Archaic, and Late. Several civilizations developed during this period with striking features, such as permanent settlements, sophisticated agriculture, monumental architecture, and complex social systems. Some cultures disappeared before the arrival of the Europeans and are known only through archaeological remains. Others, like the Maya, coexisted with the conquistadors and left written records, although many of these documents were destroyed by Europeans who considered them heretical.

It is estimated that around five million Indigenous people lived in the Americas before colonization, according to archaeologist Eduardo Neves. The pre-Columbian civilizations, such as the Aztecs, Maya, and Inca, profoundly influenced the continent’s history with their knowledge in astronomy, agriculture, engineering, and spirituality. Despite the destruction caused by colonization, material remains, and some preserved records offer glimpses into the richness of these cultures, which continue to influence contemporary societies and challenge the Eurocentric view of history.

The term “pre-Columbian” refers to the Indigenous cultures of the Americas before the arrival of Columbus in 1492, although in practice it also includes the periods during which these civilizations existed until they were either conquered or heavily influenced by the Europeans. The term is applied to the major civilizations of Mesoamerica — such as the Olmecs, Maya, and Aztecs — and of the Andes — such as the Inca, Moche, and Chibcha.

These cultures demonstrated remarkable achievements in architecture, astronomy, and mathematics. One example is Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, with around 200,000 inhabitants. Despite the transformations caused by colonization, many traditions of these peoples still survive among their descendants, often blended with more recent cultural influences. These civilizations left a legacy in the Americas.

Each of these civilizations occupied distinct geographical regions but shared key characteristics such as agricultural economies, artistic and scientific expressions, hierarchical societies, and complex religious systems. The end of these civilizations was marked by events such as the arrival of the Europeans, conflicts, diseases introduced by the colonizers, and social disruption, resulting in the decline of these rich and complex cultures.

Pre-Columbian Civilizations

Olmecs

Considered the “mother civilization” of Mesoamerica, the Olmecs lived between 1500 BC and 400 BC, in the region of the current Gulf of Mexico. They created ceremonial centers such as San Lorenzo and La Venta, notable for their monumental sculptures, such as colossal heads. They developed agricultural practices, a calendar, and pre-written symbols. Their culture directly influenced later civilizations, such as the Mayans and Aztecs. The Olmecs established trade networks and worshipped gods linked to nature, such as the jaguar, a symbol of spiritual power and fertility.

Mayans

The Mayan civilization flourished between 2000 BC and 1500 AD, in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala and Honduras. Known for their monumental architecture, such as pyramids and palaces, they also developed a hieroglyphic writing system and a sophisticated calendar. The Mayans excelled in mathematics and astronomy, creating observatories and accurately predicting eclipses. They lived in autonomous city-states with a dominant priestly elite. Although many cities collapsed before European arrival, their culture still survives among descendant peoples.

Aztecs

The Aztecs formed a powerful empire in central Mexico between the 14th and 16th centuries, with their capital at Tenochtitlán, where Mexico City is today. They were expansionist warriors, exacting tribute from dominated peoples. They developed advanced agriculture, such as chinampas (artificial islands), and excelled in architecture, art, and religion. They worshipped gods such as Huitzilopochtli, demanding human sacrifices. Their society was stratified and militarized. In 1521, the Spanish, led by Hernán Cortés, with the support of rival Indigenous peoples, defeated the Incas. Teotihuacans

The Teotihuacan civilization flourished between the 1st and 7th centuries AD in present-day Mexico, with its capital, Teotihuacan, being one of the largest cities in the ancient world. They were notable for the construction of the pyramids of the Sun and the Moon and the Avenue of the Dead. They had a complex religion, with worship of gods such as Quetzalcoatl. Although their writing remains poorly understood, their art and urban planning influenced the Maya and the Aztecs. The collapse of the city remains mysterious, but its legacy was lasting.

Toltecs

The Toltecs flourished between the 10th and 12th centuries in central Mexico, with their capital at Tula. They were influenced by earlier cultures such as the Teotihuacan and the Maya. Known for their monumental sculptures, such as the Atlanteans of Tula, and for their militaristic art, they valued war and human sacrifice. Their main god was Quetzalcoatl, also adopted by the Aztecs. The Aztecs idealized the Toltec culture as a symbol of wisdom and power, although their empire was short-lived.

Zapotecs

The Zapotecs inhabited the present-day state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico between 500 BC and 900 AD, most notably the city of Monte Albán. They developed one of the first writing systems in Mesoamerica and a complex calendar. Their society was hierarchical, and they practiced religious rituals in temples and plazas. After the decline of Monte Albán, their culture influenced the Mixtecs. The Zapotecs resisted Aztec domination and still maintain part of their culture alive today.

Mixtecs

The Mixtecs lived in the region of present-day Oaxaca and surrounding areas, prospering between the 10th and 16th centuries. Known for their skill in metallurgy, pottery and illustrated codes, they recorded their history in richly decorated manuscripts. They developed urban centers such as Tilantongo and Monte Albán (after the Zapotecs). They had a warrior elite and a complex mythology. When the Spanish arrived, the Mixtecs were already in contact with the Aztecs. Part of their culture and language persists in today's Indigenous communities.

Incas

The Inca Empire was the largest civilization in South America, stretching from present-day Ecuador to Chile, with its capital in Cusco, Peru. It flourished between the 13th and 16th centuries. The Incas built roads, agricultural terraces, and cities such as Machu Picchu. Although they did not have writing, they used quipus for accounting records. Their society was highly organized, with a religion centered on the Sun god. Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas in 1533, but their cultural and architectural legacy lives on in the Andes.

The arrival of Christopher Columbus

Pre-Columbian civilizations are the Indigenous American cultures that developed in Mesoamerica (part of Mexico and Central America) and the Andean region (western South America) before the Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century.

These civilizations represented extraordinary advancements in human society and culture, comparable to the early civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. The pre-Columbian cultures inhabited the Americas before the beginning of European colonization, marked by the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492.

Upon arriving in the Caribbean, Columbus believed he had reached the Indies, which is why he called the natives “Indians.” Among the many American cultures, three major civilizations stand out: the Aztecs in Mesoamerica, the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Inca in the central Andes.

These societies developed complex forms of political, social, and economic organization, built monuments and cities, and had advanced knowledge in astronomy, architecture, mathematics, and agriculture. On the other hand, there were also nomadic or semi-sedentary groups whose economy was based on hunting and gathering.

Due to their mobility and decentralized structure, these populations offered greater resistance to European domination. The term “pre-Columbian” therefore encompasses a diversity of peoples and ways of life that existed in the American continent before the imposition of European rule beginning in the 16th century.

The United States before the arrival of Christopher Columbus

Before the arrival of the colonizers, the territory that today corresponds to the United States was inhabited, cultivated, and preserved by Native American peoples. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, there are currently 574 federally recognized tribes, although it is estimated that more than a thousand distinct civilizations existed during the pre-Columbian era — the period prior to European influence. These civilizations varied depending on the geographic environment, with many being peaceful hunter-gatherer communities.

Scholars typically group them into regions: Northeast, Northwest, Southwest, Southeast, and the Great Plains. The influence of these peoples on the United States is profound: their agricultural techniques, values, spirituality, culture, and fashion helped shape the country's history and remain present to this day.

Despite often being forgotten in official narratives, Native peoples laid the foundations of American society. Their contribution was essential to the country’s development, and without their early presence, modern-day United States might not even exist. Recognizing this heritage is fundamental to understanding the diversity and cultural richness of the nation.

Although the arrival of Columbus in America in 1492 is widely known, understanding history goes beyond memorizing dates. Researchers such as Seixas, Morton, Pagès, and Santisteban argue that teaching should stimulate historical thinking, analyzing causes, consequences, and social meanings. Traditional education presents the “discovery” as a heroic feat centered on Columbus, ignoring the impacts of colonization on Indigenous peoples. This Eurocentric perspective portrays America as an empty land to be civilized.

For years, education in Spain reinforced this perspective without considering the point of view of the colonized. The article proposes a more critical approach to teaching, encouraging students to investigate varied sources, compare versions, and reflect on the social and cultural implications of historical events. The history taught should dialogue with the present and with the students’ contexts, especially in Ibero-American countries, where the colonial legacy still influences contemporary society.

Based on the article The Colonizer's Narrative:

Pre-Columbian America, an 'invisible' content in Spanish textbooks,

by Juan Ramón Moreno-Vera and Francisco José Martínez-Llorca.

From migrations to Pre-Columbian civilizations

The first human beings arrived in the Americas around 15,000 years ago. The most widely accepted theory is that the Bering Strait was the route used for migration from Asia to our continent. Some researchers argue that this path was traveled on foot, while others believe humans arrived by boats, using coastal navigation without straying far from the shore. There is still uncertainty about whether the arrival of humans in the Americas occurred in a single migratory wave or in two or more.

The migration of ancient peoples extended beyond the borders of what is now North America, reaching into Mexico, Central America, and South America. Over millennia, these groups formed complex civilizations, building temples, pyramids, and impressive cities.

The most notable civilizations of this period were the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas, who developed sophisticated social, political, and religious systems, as well as remarkable artistic expressions. Although many of these cultures were destroyed after contact with Europeans, falling victim to wars and diseases, they left a legacy. Their artifacts are considered among the richest and most elaborate in history.

The study of these civilizations shows that the American continent already had a long and complex cultural trajectory long before European colonization. Recognizing the importance of these peoples is essential to understanding the historical diversity of the Americas and valuing the Indigenous roots that still influence local cultures today.

Just like the ancient civilizations of the Old World, those of the Americas were marked by kingdoms and empires, grand monuments, and cities, as well as refinement in art, metallurgy, and writing. The ancient civilizations of the Americas also reveal, in their history, cyclical patterns of growth and decline, of unity and fragmentation.

Pre-Columbian peoples

The Pre-Columbian peoples inhabited the Americas before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors and developed great civilizations across different regions of the continent. In Mesoamerica, civilizations such as the Olmecs, Teotihuacan, and Zapotecs flourished, contributing significant cultural and religious legacies.

The Mayans, known for their contributions to astronomy and architecture, stood out as an advanced civilization. In the Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs formed a complex society, centered on agriculture and a polysemic religiosity. In South America, the Incas established the vast Tahuantinsuyo Empire, characterized by a highly organized society and an economy based on terrace farming.

Agricultural communities

The first people of the Americas were nomadic hunter-gatherers, organized into small groups that moved in search of food. Over time, especially around 9,000 years ago, some communities began practicing agriculture, initially in the regions of the Andes Mountains and Central America. In these areas, they started cultivating maize, potatoes, squash, beans, and tomatoes, which enabled sedentarization and the emergence of the first villages and cities on the continent.

In Mesoamerica, the agricultural lifestyle became established around 1500 BCE, when sedentary communities based on the cultivation of maize, beans, chili peppers, and cotton began to emerge. These groups produced ceramics, textiles, and lived in an egalitarian way, with autonomous and self-sufficient villages.

However, between 1200 and 900 BCE, signs of profound change began to appear: the construction of pyramids, platforms, and stone monuments pointed to the rise of more complex and hierarchical social structures. This gradual transformation process marks the beginning of the great American civilizations, based on developed agriculture and sophisticated forms of political and cultural organization.

Olmec horizon

These transformations initially emerged in the southern Gulf Coast region of present-day Mexico, and the sculptures, created in what is now known as the Olmec style, are representations of chiefs or rulers. Based on these and other archaeological evidence, it is inferred that a class-structured and politically centralized society developed. Later, other major cities and urban centers arose in neighboring regions that also displayed Olmec artistic style.

This so-called Olmec horizon—that is, a simultaneous cultural diffusion across geographically distinct locations—represents the first apex or era of “unification” in the history of Mesoamerican civilization. After around 500 BCE, the Olmec unification gave way to a period marked by distinct regional styles and independent kingdoms—a period that includes the Late Formative and Classic phases—which lasted until approximately seven 700–900 CE. Among the best-known civilizations of this era were the Maya, Zapotec, Totonac, and Teotihuacan peoples. Although they shared a common legacy left by the Olmecs, these cultures also exhibited many differences among themselves.

The emergence of other civilizations

The Maya excelled in intellectual activities such as hieroglyphic writing, the creation of calendars, and the development of mathematics. Meanwhile, the Teotihuacan civilization, located in the Valley of Mexico, emphasized political and commercial power. Teotihuacan became an urban center with around 150,000 inhabitants, and its cultural and economic influence spread throughout much of Mesoamerica.

For this reason, Teotihuacan represented a second civilizational apex, or a new phase of “unification,” between approximately 400 and 600 CE. The power of Teotihuacan began to decline after 600 CE, ushering in a turbulent period marked by competition among various states and emerging empires for regional supremacy.

Among these competitors were the Toltecs of Tula, in central Mexico, who dominated between 900 and 1200 CE, during the so-called Early Postclassic Period. With the decline of the Toltecs, the Late Postclassic Period was again dominated by wars and rivalries until 1428, when the Aztecs defeated the rival city of Azcapotzalco and emerged as the dominant power in the central region of Mexico. The Spanish conquered this last great indigenous empire of Mesoamerica, led by Hernán Cortés in 1521 ֎