Lords of the Seas
The Phoenicians, a Semitic people who settled in the Mediterranean region corresponding to present-day Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, around 3000 BC, stood out for their skill in trade and the fusion of cultural influences. Phoenician art flourished between the 19th and 4th centuries BC, reaching its peak between 1200 and 800 BC, a period in which they dominated maritime trade and established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, such as Carthage, the main Phoenician colony. Experts in navigation, the Phoenician people maintained intense contact with cultures such as the Egyptian, Greek, Cypriot and Mesopotamian, thus shaping their artistic production through a mixture of diverse styles.
Although influenced by other cultures, Phoenician art developed its own characteristics, a synthesis of diverse models. Their artistic productions ranged from functional to religious objects, maintaining stylistic uniformity between the Phoenician city-states (such as Tyre and Sidon) and their western colonies, thanks to constant commercial exchange. After their peak, in the sixth century BC the Persians conquered them. The terms "Semitic" and "Punic" are used to describe both the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians, with the art of Carthage often referred to as Carthaginian or Punic art.
Phoenician Art and Carthaginian Art
Phoenician art dates to the 10th century BC, since earlier works are so like Egyptian and Assyrian works that they are indistinguishable from them, until the sixth century BC, when Phoenicia was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II, beginning a decline of the colonies From that moment on, Carthage, founded by the Phoenicians in the 9th century BC and the main colony, took advantage of its location and took over the direction of the colonies until the Romans conquered it in the 2nd century BC, a period studied as Punic or Carthaginian art. In the case of ceramics, the specialist Caro Bellido dates the transition from Phoenician ceramic art to the period of Carthaginian influence to around 550 BC.
Artistic Influences
Phoenician art, predominant between the 10th and 7th centuries BC, reflects strong Egyptian and Assyrian influences, evolving into a style more marked by Greek culture after the seventh century BC. Although recognized for its sophistication, it was seen as a combination of foreign styles, due to its commercial focus and the adaptation of cultural models. Products such as sculptures, ceramics, jewelry, and metal objects were exported throughout Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean.
Phoenician artisans stood out for the creation of small decorative objects, such as ivory panels, metal bowls and colored glass. Egyptian and Mesopotamian motifs decorated tombs and religious objects, while clay tablets recorded beliefs and practices, such as offerings to gods associated with natural phenomena. Despite the influence of neighboring cultures, the Phoenicians developed a unique heritage, characterized by the integration of Eastern and Mediterranean styles, especially in statuary, goldsmithing and glyptic.
The eclecticism of Phoenician art, although considered less original, contributed to the cultural dissemination in the ancient world, consolidating its position as an artistic and commercial intermediary in the Mediterranean. In Carthage, Greek influences became more evident, marking a period of intense cultural exchange.
Phoenician Artisans and Production
Little is known about Phoenician craftsmen, but studies suggest collaboration and the use of repetitive patterns on ivory, suggesting models or pattern books. Carthage excelled in the production of sacrificial stelae, influencing other regions. Portable objects such as razors and terracotta heads spread widely and reflected the Phoenician cultural reach and ability to integrate foreign influences.
Iconography and Cultural Influences
Phoenician art balanced innovation and tradition, widely adapting motifs from other cultures such as Egypt and Greece. This approach is evident in a variety of art forms, including pottery, metalwork, and jewelry. Asian metal bowls and ivories from the early first millennium BC shared motifs with Greek objects from the Orientalizing Period, highlighting cultural interconnection. Objects such as jewelry, scarabs, and amulets served both aesthetic and symbolic purposes, revealing the connection between art and spirituality in Phoenician culture.
Meaning and Contexts
Phoenician art, which flourished between the 12th and 6th centuries BC, combined external influences with a unique identity marked by rich and conservative iconography. Ritual objects such as masks, protomes and stelae reflect their sophistication and functionality, although the lack of written records makes complete interpretations difficult. Stylistic analyses reveal the position of the Phoenicians as cultural intermediaries in the Mediterranean, highlighting city-states such as Tyre and Sidon, centers of trade and defense. The complexity of their art continues to inspire debate and enrich our understanding of cultural exchanges and the legacy of this civilization in the ancient world.
Architecture
The Phoenicians built fortified cities and ports, such as Sidon and Tyre, combining functionality and aesthetics. Their temples and sanctuaries, such as Eshmun and Melqart, were notable for their elegance and religious importance. The forms of Phoenician architecture are inferred more from the designs on seals and other reliefs than from the ruins of their buildings; although there is no shortage of remains of architectural pieces found in Cyprus and Phoenicia. Among these is the scrolled capital, inspired by Asian art and which could well have been the predecessor of the Ionic order.
Phoenician temples (such as that of Byblos) were distinguished by having an uncovered sanctuary. In it, a stone or betyl was worshipped, which consisted of a conical aerolite (like a stone fallen from the sky) located in the middle of the room, which was preceded by an atrium surrounded internally by columns. The shape that the Sidonians gave to their sumptuous stone sarcophagi was also characteristic, and reproduced the outline of the human figure, like the Egyptian anthropoid wooden sarcophagi.
Sculpture
Phoenician sculptures celebrated the human figure with realism and expressiveness. Notable examples include the "Sarcophagus of the Kings" from Sidon. In addition, funerary sculptures, placed in sarcophagi, honored the dead with serene postures.
The term Phoenician sculptures includes numerous and varied statues of the Phoenician, Libyan, Sardinian, Tyrrhenian, Pelasgian, Hittite, and Cypriot peoples, which are presented with a certain archaic rigidity and lack of naturalness, and which offer visible Assyrian, Egyptian and even Greek reminiscences according to the times and countries.
Cypriot sculptures (from the island of Cyprus) are considered legitimately Phoenician in stone and bronze since the Phoenicians took control of the island around 1000 BC and founded important cities there, subjugating the Hittites who were its former inhabitants. Similarly, Phoenician art can be studied on the islands of Sardinia and Ibiza, which the colonies of Tyre took over in the eighth century BC.
Ceramics and Decorative Objects
Known for its polychrome style, Phoenician pottery used bright colors and elaborate designs, valued both in trade and in funerary rituals, as evidenced by the offerings from the Necropolis of Tyre. Skilled goldsmiths, the Phoenicians created exquisite jewelry from gold, silver, and precious stones, which were widely exported.
Ivory and glasswork, including amulets and beads, stand out as examples of luxury and technical innovation, influencing Roman and Byzantine art.
Phoenician art not only reveals the skill and creativity of these people, but also reflects their ability to integrate cultural influences and expand their influence throughout the Mediterranean.
1 Phoenician ivory sphinx plaque – By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin 2 Lioness devouring a boy – By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin 3 Phoenician glassware – By Remi Mathis 4Phoenician bronze bowl from Nimrud – By Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin
Ivory Work and Decorated Bowls
The Phoenicians created sophisticated ivory art, which can be found in palaces, temples, and tombs throughout the Mediterranean. They included luxurious furniture, such as thrones and combs, adorned with paint, gold, and glass. Metal bowls were decorated with hunting scenes and Egyptian themes, reflecting prestige, as mentioned by Homer in the Iliad. Razors, jewels, and scarabs displayed geometric and naturalistic motifs linked to religious themes. In the fifth century BC, Greek influence became prominent, especially in Carthage, with the incorporation of Greek iconography. This period highlighted intense cultural exchanges, evidence of the Phoenician ability to adapt styles and enrich their artistic productions.
Stone Stelae and Religious Symbolism
Stelae and cippi were sacrificial monuments found in Phoenician cemeteries called Tophet, where the cremated remains of children and animals were stored. Carthage was a center of innovation in the production of these stelae, which later influenced other Phoenician cities. The stelae showed regional preferences: while Carthage prioritized incisions, Italian sculptors used reliefs.
Universal motifs, such as the Sign of Tanit and the caduceus of Hermes, were associated with the ritual context, symbolizing worshipers, and deities. The quality of the stelae varied, reflecting the skills of the craftsmen and the use of standardized models. Despite the artistic decline in Carthage after the third century BC, these works highlight the rich symbolism and cultural interactions that shaped Phoenician art.
Terracotta Masks and Protomes
Terracotta masks and protomes stand out as rare forms of Phoenician art, produced since the Late Bronze Age. Perforated for hanging, they were used as death masks, amulets, or ritual decorative elements. From the seventh century BC onwards, Greek influences emerged in the western Mediterranean, combining styles from Ionia, Rhodes, and Sicily. Masks ranged from naturalistic to grotesque, while amulets depicted Greek mythological figures such as Sileni and Satyrs. Female protomes reflected Egyptian and Greek influences. Carthage was central to the production and dissemination of these objects, which are found in places such as Sardinia and Ibiza, symbolizing religious practices and artistic interaction in the Mediterranean.
Phoenician Art and Its Cultural Legacy
Phoenician art, marked by eclecticism, functionality, and technical skill, reflected Egyptian, Assyrian and Greek influences, the result of intense maritime trade. Produced in materials such as metal, ivory, glass, terracotta, wood, and purple fabrics, it stood out for its integration of styles and visual impact. Phoenician artisans created religious, commercial and everyday objects, such as jewelry, amulets, metal bowls and sarcophagi, many of which were discovered in funerary contexts. Larger sculptures and perishable items are rare. Trade spread their art to Greece, Italy, North Africa, and Iberia from the 10th century BC. This cultural legacy, shaped by the adaptation of influences, transcended borders ֍
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Hebrew Art
The art of the ancient Hebrews, or Israelites, is marked by a strong religious and communal influence, with a lesser focus on figurative representation, unlike Egyptian and Babylonian cultures. This behavior is in line with the precepts of the Jewish religion, which prohibited human or divine representations to avoid idolatry. Jewish art encompasses a wide range of expressions, from the ancient Israelites to contemporary Israeli art, always influenced by culture, history, and religious beliefs.
During the Second Temple period, Hebrew art began to take shape by absorbing influences from the dominant empires of the time. During the Mishnaic and Talmudic eras, it adapted to the cultural and religious changes of the Jewish communities. With the diaspora, Jewish art diversified in the cultures in which the Jews settled, maintaining certain characteristic motifs.
Before emancipation, Jewish art was religious. After this period, European Jewish artists began to explore secular themes, especially the modernists of the School of Paris in the early twentieth century. However, the remains of ancient Hebrew art are scarce, limited to ceramics and glyptic art, and literary references in the context of the Temple in Jerusalem.
Pre-Second Temple Period
Before the First Temple Period and throughout its duration, literary sources point to the existence of crafts that could be considered art in its restrictive and natively Jewish sense. This was related to matters of ritual, such as the decoration of the Tabernacle and the Temple that replaced it. Within this context, several figurative characters were present, such as the cherubim of the Ark of the Covenant and Solomon's Holy of Holies, and the twelve bronze oxen that formed the base of the Molten Sea. Artifacts with plastic representations, such as the tablets unearthed in King Ahab's "Ivory House" in Samaria and Israelite seals found at many sites in the land of Israel, appear to be influenced by Phoenician, Assyrian, or Egyptian styles.
Second Temple Period and Late Antiquity
During the Second Temple period, Jewish art avoided figurative representations due to the biblical prohibition against carved images. Geometric, floral, and architectural motifs predominated, reflecting a response to Hellenistic influences and the imposition of idolatry. Symbols such as the menorah and the table of showbread were used sparingly, focusing on their relevance to priestly duties.
The menorah is one of the oldest and most important symbols of Jewish tradition, frequently depicted in Hebrew art. It is a seven-branched candelabra originally described in the Hebrew Bible (Exodus 25:31-40), made of pure gold, and used in the Tabernacle and, later, in the Temple in Jerusalem. In Hebrew art, the menorah appears as a religious, cultural, and identity emblem.
With the rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, Jewish art began to incorporate more symbols in synagogues and funerary contexts, expanding the representation of Jewish identity. The menorah, initially associated with Temple functions, became a central emblem of Judaism and national identity after the destruction of the Temple. Depicted in mosaics and catacombs, it symbolized both divine light and the continuity of the Jewish faith.
Other ritual objects, such as the lulav, etrog, shofar, and flasks, also gained prominence, maintaining Temple traditions among communities in the diaspora. Along with the table of showbread and the Ark of Scrolls, these representations reaffirmed Jewish religious and cultural heritage. Thus, Jewish art evolved to express resistance and identity amid historical and cultural transformations.
Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem is the most famous example. Although there are no physical remains of the temple, biblical accounts describe it as a richly decorated building, with details of gold, cedar wood, and precious stones. The later synagogues, developed during the Second Temple period and in the Diaspora, were also important architectural and artistic centers, often decorated with mosaics and geometric elements.
Religion as an Opponent of Visual Art
It was the religion of the Jews that prevented the full development of the art of sculpture and therefore confined it within the narrow limits mentioned above. In the earliest times, when images were not prohibited, the technical ability to make them artistically was lacking; and when in later periods this artistic skill could have been acquired from others, images were prohibited.
The persistent struggle of the Prophets against images was waged with such success that in the end not only was any representation of the Deity prohibited, but even the portrayal of living beings in general, man or animal. A command like that of the Decalogue (Exodus xx. 4; Deuteronomy v. 8) would have been impossible for a nation endowed with artistic gifts like the Greeks and was carried to its ultimate consequences—as in Islam today—only because the people lacked artistic inclination, with its creative power and formative imagination.
The Hebrews excelled in the creation of religious objects, such as the menorah (a seven-branched candelabra) and the Ark of the Covenant, which, according to the Bible, was covered with gold and decorated with cherubim.
Pottery
The art of pottery dates to the earliest days. After their settlement in Canaan, the Israelites undoubtedly soon learned this art from the inhabitants, although for a long time afterwards the Phoenicians, who carried their pottery to distant lands, continued to supply the interior of Palestine. Excavations at Jerusalem and Tell el-Hesy (probably ancient Lachish) have yielded a proportionately rich fund of material, sufficient, according to Flinders Petrie, to trace the history of Palestinian pottery.
Petrie distinguishes an Amorite, a Phoenician, and a Jewish period, each with its own characteristic style. It is undoubtedly true that the art of pottery among the Hebrews was developed under Phoenician influence, for its forms are always crude imitations of Phoenician models. The earliest finds, especially those from Jerusalem, show forms that are in use today throughout Palestine and Syria.
Sculpture
Sculpture was the least developed art form among the Jews. Sculpture in stone was nonexistent, except for clay idols, sarcophagi, or carved decorations in stone houses. The skill in artistic work in stone seems to have been limited at this time.
On the other hand, carving in ivory and wood was an early practice. Woodwork, such as the cherubim in the Holy of Holies and the carvings on the walls and doors of the Temple, demonstrate the skill of the craftsmen. Solomon's throne, made of ivory, is a notable example, although it is not known whether Jews or Phoenicians made it.
Glyptic Art
Glyptic is the art of carving and engraving precious and semi-precious stones, such as agate, onyx, and jasper, with a tradition that dates to the civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The objects created, such as seals, signets, engraved gems, and amulets, were small and intricate, serving practical, spiritual, and artistic purposes.
The practice originated in the East, where seals had been used in commercial transactions since ancient times, especially in the Euphrates district. Syrians and Phoenicians adopted the technique due to their frequent interactions with this region, developing skills in creating seals decorated with symbols such as palm leaves, poppy heads, winged spheres, and Egyptian motifs such as the Eye of Osiris.
The Hebrews learned the art from the Canaanites and Phoenicians, but Hebrew and Phoenician seals are similar in style, making them difficult to tell apart. Even when Jewish names appear on artifacts, Phoenicians may have made them. These items reflect cultural interaction and artistic exchange between Hebrews, Phoenicians, and other Mediterranean civilizations, highlighting the role of glyptic as an expression of cultural connections and social status in the ancient world.
Painting
Painting was little developed among the Hebrews, due to a limited sense of color and other cultural constraints. The earliest attempts appear in the decoration of jars and vases, found at sites such as Tell el-Hesy and Jerusalem, with results ranging from simple to more elaborate. These objects displayed geometric patterns, such as parallel lines, zigzags, and waves, used as ornamentation around vases.
In the Old Testament, painting is not mentioned directly. The passage in Ezekiel (23:14) about "images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion" probably refers to designs outlined and filled with color, rather than traditional painting. Thus, Hebrew ornamentation focused on simple, colorful geometric forms.
Metal Casting
Metalworking among the ancient Jews was limited, especially in the period of Solomon's Temple. The main reference to Jewish metallurgy comes from the description of the Temple in I Kings and II Chronicles, highlighting the work of Hiram, a Phoenician craftsman responsible for the manufacture of many utensils for the sanctuary. This indicates that the Jews did not fully master the casting of metals such as bronze or brass at the time. The large metal works, such as the pillars and the "sea of bronze", followed Phoenician models, which were renowned for their excellence in metallurgy and presence in Egypt.
The smaller utensils, made of gold and silver, also imitated the Phoenician style, and the decorations reflected influences from various cultures, such as Assyria and Egypt, with symbols such as the palm leaf, the lotus, pomegranates, and animal figures. In addition to casting, the Jews used metal coating techniques, as seen in the "golden calves" of Dan and Bethel, probably idols covered with gold or silver sheets. The use of gold sheets was widely used in the construction of the Temple, covering walls, doors, and the floor.
Calligraphy, Mosaic and Funerary Art
The production of sacred texts such as the Torah led to the development of refined calligraphy, with manuscripts meticulously copied onto parchment. During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, the Hebrews incorporated outside influences but avoided human representations, creating mosaics with geometric patterns and Jewish symbols. Funeral art included inscriptions and ornaments, but rarely human figures. Music played a key role in religious and social practices, with instruments such as harps, lyres, and cymbals mentioned in the Psalms.
Medieval Period
During the medieval period (5th to 15th centuries), Jewish art focused on religious expressions, including synagogues, illuminated manuscripts, and ritual objects. Jewish artists such as Mariano del Buono and the Master of the Missal Barbo often collaborated with Christian patrons, creating pieces that reflected Christian aesthetic influences, such as Hanukkah lamps and kiddush cups.
Synagogue architecture incorporated Christian elements, such as the Gothic style in Regensburg and Prague, demonstrating the cultural interaction between Jews and Christians. Illuminated manuscripts, such as the Sarajevo Haggadah, also reveal the fusion of Jewish traditions with Gothic and Italian influences.
In addition, medieval Jewish art was notable for its adaptation to external constraints. Synagogues in Central Europe, such as those in Düsseldorf and Vienna, were discreetly located, hiding their opulent interiors. In the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the dichotomy between modest exteriors and rich interiors symbolized the Jewish philosophy that the sacred is hidden in the mundane.
This approach was also reflected in the practice of lowering floors to create a sense of greater internal height, complying with legal restrictions, and enriching the spiritual experience of Jewish worship spaces ֍
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