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Oct 1721 min read

Mesopotamia - Phoenicians and Hebrews

Updated: Oct 19

The Phoenicians (1500–300 BC)

The Phoenicians, inhabitants of the Levantine coast, formed a confederation of independent cities such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, focused on maritime trade. Known as 'Canaanites' or 'Punics', they were rivals of the Greeks and enemies of the Romans. The Greeks coined the term ‘Phoenicians,’ in connection with the purple dye they produced.

Their historical importance includes the invention of an alphabet that influenced the Greeks and the founding of colonies in the Mediterranean, such as Cádiz and Palermo. Pioneers in celestial navigation, they spread the Mediterranean diet, introducing olive oil, wine and pulses, and their craftsmanship was crucial in the construction of Solomon's Temple.

During the Late Bronze Age, they prospered from maritime trade, gaining independence after the decline of Egyptian influence in 1200 BC. From the ninth century onwards, Assyria began to threaten their independence, which, in 538 BC, was succeeded by Persian domination, followed by Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire, with some cities still maintaining autonomy.

Historical Periods of Phoenicia

Pre-Phoenician Period (c. 3000 BC – 1200 BC) – before the emergence of the Phoenician civilization, the region of Phoenicia was occupied by Canaanite city-states. These communities developed under the influence of civilizations such as Egypt and Mesopotamia. They maintained trade networks and contacts with other Mediterranean cultures.

Early Phoenician Period (c. 1200 BC – 800 BC) – after the collapse of the great Bronze Age powers, such as Egypt and the Hittite Empire, Phoenician cities such as Tyre, Sidon and Byblos grew stronger. This period marks the consolidation of Phoenician culture, especially in maritime trade. The Phoenicians founded colonies throughout the Mediterranean, with Carthage being one of the most important.

Period of Expansion (c. 800 BC – 539 BC) – During this time, Phoenician influence expanded, with their trading colonies spreading across the North African coast, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain. This period also saw the Phoenicians under pressure from empires such as the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, paying tribute to these powers.

Persian and Hellenistic Period (539 BC – 146 BC) – Phoenicia was incorporated into the Persian Empire in 539 BC when Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon. Alexander the Great later conquered Phoenicia in 332 BC, integrating it into the Hellenistic world.

Origins (2300–1200 BCE)

In terms of archaeology, language, and religion, there is little that separates the Phoenicians from the other cultures of the Canaanite region. As Canaanites, their only distinction was their remarkable maritime exploits. In the Amarna tablets of the 14th century BCE, they call themselves Kenaani or Kinaani ("Canaanites"), although these letters predate the invasion of the Sea Peoples by more than a century.

Much later, in the sixth century BCE, Hecataeus of Miletus writes that Phoenicia was formerly called χνα, a name that Philo of Byblos later adopted in his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna, who was afterwards called Phoinix." As early as the third millennium BCE, Egyptians were making sea expeditions to bring back "cedar of Lebanon."

Genetic Studies

Spencer Wells of the Genographic Project found that male populations in Lebanon, Malta, Spain, and other areas colonized by the Phoenicians share the M89 Y-chromosome. In contrast, populations associated with the Minoan Civilization and the Sea Peoples have different genetic markers, indicating no ancestral relationship with the Phoenicians.

In 2004, geneticists at Harvard University identified haplogroup J2 as "the haplogroup of the Phoenicians." Studies have shown that male populations in Tunisia and Malta also share genetic similarities with the Lebanese, with one in 17 men from North Africa and Southern Europe possibly having direct Phoenician ancestors.

Heyday (1200–800 BCE)

Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), in The Perspective of the World, highlights Phoenicia as an early example of a "world economy" surrounded by empires. Between 1200 and 800 BC, the Phoenicians reached the height of their culture and maritime power, with cities such as Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut, which had existed since the third millennium BC. These independent city-states were crucial to trade between the Levant and the ancient world.

The fall of empires such as Egypt and the Hittites, weakened by the arrival of the Sea Peoples, favored Phoenician growth. Byblos dominated trade and revealed the first Phoenician alphabet. Tyre, under King Ithobaal I, expanded its control as far as Beirut and Cyprus. Carthage, founded by Elissa (Dido), became an important Phoenician colony.

Braudel analyzed history by connecting economics, geography, and society, which profoundly influenced modern historiography. Fernand Braudel was a French historian of the Annales School, known for his innovative approach that linked economics, geography, and society. In works such as The Mediterranean, he examined history over prolonged periods and introduced the concept of a "world economy" that significantly influenced contemporary historiography.

Decline (539–65 BCE)

Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in 539 BC, dividing it into four vassal kingdoms: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos. Although these kingdoms prospered and provided the Persians with navies, Phoenician influence began to wane after the conquest, with many Phoenicians migrating to Carthage and other colonies. In 350–345 BC, Sidon, led by Tennes, rebelled against Persian rule but was crushed by Artaxerxes III.

Alexander the Great conquered Tyre in 332 BC after a brutal siege and executed 2,000 citizens while keeping the king in power. The Phoenician cities were peacefully incorporated, and Hellenistic Greece replaced Phoenician rule on the eastern Mediterranean trade routes. Phoenician culture disappeared in its homeland, but Carthage flourished in North Africa until the Romans destroyed it in 146 BC.

The Phoenician region came under the control of several Hellenistic rulers, including Laomedon and Ptolemy I, with Phoenicia being ruled by the Ptolemies between 286 and 197 BC. In 197 BC, the region returned to the Seleucids, becoming increasingly Hellenized. Tyre and Sidon became autonomous in 126 BC and 111 BC respectively, but the area was finally incorporated into the Roman province of Syria in 65 BC by Pompey the Great.

Experts in the Mediterranean

Phoenician city-states such as Byblos, Sidon and Tyre flourished after the invasions of the Sea Peoples in 1200 BCE. Ruled by hereditary monarchies supported by merchant councils, these cities turned to the sea due to their geographical isolation and the presence of large empires. They developed advanced vessels made of cedar and cypress, enabling them to undertake expeditions such as the circumnavigation of Africa under Pharaoh Necho II.

Despite being politically fragmented and militarily weak, the Phoenicians dominated trade in the Mediterranean, establishing trade routes between East and West and strategic settlements such as Cyprus and Cadiz. Carthage, a Phoenician colony founded in 814 BCE, became a major power, rivaling Rome in the Punic Wars.

The Phoenicians traded luxuries such as purple fabrics for raw materials and developed an artistic culture that blended influences from Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Syria. Excavations at trading centers provide insight into their culture. The sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of Byblos, stands out as a representative work of their legacy. Much of the knowledge about the Phoenicians comes from sources such as the Bible, Assyrian records, and Greek and Roman accounts, such as that of Herodotus, who reported the Phoenician circumnavigation of Africa.

Natural Resources and Craftsmen

The main natural resources of the Phoenician cities included the valuable cedars of Lebanon, and the murex shells used in the production of purple dye. The Phoenicians were skilled craftsmen in wood, ivory, metalworking, and textile production. Carving in ivory and wood became a specialty in Phoenicia, and the work of Phoenician goldsmiths and metalworkers was also well known.

Glassblowing was probably invented in the coastal area of Phoenicia in the first century or earlier. In the Old Testament, it is mentioned that the expert craftsman Hiram of Tyre was commissioned to build Solomon's temple in Jerusalem. In Homer's Iliad, there are references to Phoenician crafts, such as a silver bowl from Sidon and embroidered garments made by Sidonian women.

Phoenician Language, Religion, and Art

The Phoenician language, closely related to Hebrew, was mutually intelligible until Aramaic replaced both. Although they initially used cuneiform, the Phoenicians created their own 22-letter alphabet, which was used in Byblos as early as the 15th century BCE. This alphabet, later adopted by the Greeks, gave rise to the modern Roman alphabet, and is the Phoenician's greatest contribution to civilization.

Each Phoenician city-state had its own deities, such as Baal and Baalat in Byblos, Melqart in Tyre, and Eshmun in Sidon, but they shared religious elements due to prolonged cultural contact. During the Achaemenid period, the Astarte of Sidon became predominant in Phoenician cities.

Phoenician art combined influences from several cultures, including Egypt, Assyria, and Cyprus. The strong Egyptian influence reflected the trade and political connections between the two civilizations. However, the most legacy of the Phoenicians was the development of the alphabet, which influenced Western writing.

In Search of The Phoenicians - Josephine Quinn - Princeton University Press

In the book Search of the Phoenicians, Josephine Quinn challenges the idea of a homogeneous identity among the Phoenicians, who were known for their trading and maritime skills. They inhabited a narrow strip of land in modern-day Syria, Lebanon, and northern Israel, but the lack of a common territory, language or cultural heritage makes their identity enigmatic.

Quinn argues that the Phoenicians were initially a construct of Greek traditions, and in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, some cities, such as Carthage, adopted this identity as a political strategy.

The book is divided into three parts: the first confronts the modern view of the Phoenicians, the second examines cultural interactions and connections, and the last challenges the idea that Phoenician history ended with Alexander the Great. Quinn also explores how modern countries, such as Lebanon and Tunisia, claim Phoenician heritages to construct their national identities, encouraging readers to reconsider identities in the ancient Near East֎

The Hebrews

Initially known as Israelites, the Hebrews were one of the most influential cultures of the Bronze Age and Iron Age, with a lasting impact on Western Civilization. Of Semitic origin, they are believed to have originated in Mesopotamia and, according to the Bible, migrated to Canaan by divine calling.

The term Semitic refers primarily to a linguistic group composed of a family of several peoples, among which the Arabs and Hebrews stand out, who share the same cultural origins.

The origin of the word Semitic comes from an expression in Genesis and referred to the lineage of descendants of Shem, son of Noah. They spoke the "Language of Canaan" and were responsible for the composition of the Bible, a fundamental text for several monotheistic religions.

The descendants of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were called Hebrews until the conquest of Canaan, when they became known as Israelites. After the Babylonian Exile in the sixth century B.C., the term Jew came into use. Today's Jews consider themselves heirs to this tradition. This connection was crucial to the creation of the State of Israel in 1948. The history of the Hebrews involves their migration to Egypt, their enslavement, and their liberation by Moses, who received the Ten Commandments, the basis of Hebrew morality and faith.

Hebrew Religion and Culture

The religion of the early Hebrews was heavily influenced by the Canaanites, adopting the name of their deity, El, and assimilating psalms and literary themes. In the Bible, Yahweh (Jehovah) is associated with El, and Canaanite gods such as Baal and Asherah were also worshipped by the Hebrews.

Although Yahweh is the only God in Judaism, the worship of Asherah was accepted at some point. The Hebrews bequeathed monotheism when they founded Judaism, reflected in the Ten Commandments, which emphasize belief in one God and moral prohibitions such as theft, adultery, and murder. They built temples, most notably the Temple of Jerusalem, whose Wailing Wall is one of its main legacies.

The pact between the Hebrews and Yahweh at Sinai established religious duties in exchange for divine protection, with the Ten Commandments present in Exodus and Deuteronomy. Although Judaism promotes the exclusive worship of Yahweh, henotheism initially prevailed, with the worship of other gods. The Prophetic Movement (750-550 BCE) and King Josiah, in the seventh century BCE, promoted monotheism. The main contribution of the Hebrews was the religious practice of Judaism, the root of Christianity and Islam, forming the "Religions of the Book".

Hebrew History

Hebrew history is divided into three phases: patriarchs, judges, and kings. In the first century CE, the Hebrews began to flee their land due to Roman persecution. The Hebrew Bible, the main source of this history, was written 400 to 600 years after the events described, being a mythical narrative that complicates historical interpretation.

In the 19th century, scholars such as W. de Wette and Julius Wellhausen developed the “Documentary Hypothesis”, suggesting multiple sources for the Bible. Archaeologists such as Friedrich Delitzsch have identified connections between Mesopotamian traditions and biblical texts. Critics such as Thomas Thompson and Israel Finkelstein question traditional aspects such as the kingdoms of David and Solomon.

Period of the Patriarchs (c. 2000–1600 BCE)

The Hebrews trace their origins to the patriarchs, such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Abraham, a semi-nomadic herder, was said to have received a promise from God (Yahweh) that his descendants would inherit the Promised Land of Canaan. Jacob, also called Israel, had twelve sons, whose lineages would give rise to the twelve tribes of Israel. During a great drought, the Hebrews migrated to Egypt, where they were enslaved.

Babylonian Captivity

During the Babylonian Captivity, the Hebrews established strict religious practices, including dietary laws and ceremonies to preserve their identity. The prophet Ezra compiled the Torah, ensuring that the Jewish faith would remain alive even in exile. This made the religion “mobile,” allowing the Jews to survive as a distinct people despite adversity.

Another crucial aspect of Judaism was its egalitarian ethical system, which asserted that all were equal before God, a radical concept for the time. These ideas and beliefs, especially monotheism and spiritual equality, had a profound impact on the subsequent history of Western and global civilization.

Accounts about the Hebrews are found in the Old Testament, especially in the first five books, which constitute the Torah, also known as the Pentateuch. These books form the foundation of Judaism and are considered sacred in both Judaism and Christianity. These narratives are central to Hebrew identity and religion. They are as follows:

1 - Genesis (Bereshit) – tells the creation of the world, the stories of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob) and the beginning of the Hebrew people.

2 - Exodus (Shemot) – describes the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt, slavery, the Exodus, and the covenant with God on Mount Sinai, where Moses receives the Ten Commandments.

3 - Leviticus (Vayikra) – contains laws and regulations, especially related to worship, sacrifices and ritual purity.

4 - Numbers (Bemidbar) – tells the story of the Hebrews’ journey in the desert and the difficulties they faced on the way to the Promised Land.

5 - Deuteronomy (Devarim) – presents Moses’ speeches and a recap of the laws before the Hebrews entered Canaan.

Problems of Dating Genesis

The date of the book of Genesis, which deals with the patriarchs, is uncertain. Wellhausen, in the 19th century, suggested that it was composed by diverse groups over time. Experts believe that the text was written later, during the monarchy or later. An example of an anachronism is the mention of the Philistines, who only arrived in the region after 1200 BC.

Gerar, mentioned as the Philistine capital, was insignificant in the Period of the Patriarchs, becoming relevant only around 700 BC. Other anachronisms include references to the Arameans, Dan, and Ur of the Chaldeans, which did not exist at the time described. These indications suggest that the account of the patriarchs was probably developed around 700 BC.

The Patriarch Abraham

The first mention of the Hebrews occurs around 1200 B.C., when the "Israelites" were already in Palestine. Hebrew traditions, especially in Genesis, portray Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as founding patriarchs of the Hebrew lineage. Abraham, from Ur, is seen as the leader of semi-nomadic tribes, and his migration to Canaan may symbolize the return of the Jews exiled in Babylon, legitimizing the occupation of Canaan by the Hebrews. Scholars believe that the patriarchs represent tribes, and that Genesis has a mythical character.

Abraham is mentioned in the Bible as Ivry (Hebrew), but the term was used by other peoples to describe the Israelites. Its origin may be related to the term "Habiru", semi-nomadic groups mentioned in Egyptian texts. Abraham symbolizes the beginning of the Israelite story, with God testing his faith by asking for the sacrifice of Isaac and promising to bless all nations through him.

Slavery in Egypt

After settling in Canaan, the Hebrews migrated to Egypt around 1700 B.C. due to food shortages. Egypt, fertile thanks to the Nile River, offered better living conditions. The migration may have involved all the tribes or just some. At the time, the Hebrews took advantage of the dominance of the Hyksos, a Semitic people who controlled the region, and settled peacefully, occupying important positions. However, after the Hyksos were expelled by the Egyptians, the Hebrews were enslaved. Their liberation, led by Moses, occurred around 1300 B.C.

Exodus

The Exodus is a biblical episode that narrates the escape of the Jews, led by Moses, from slavery in Egypt to return to the land of Canaan. According to the Bible, Jacob's family moved to Egypt due to drought and settled there thanks to Joseph, who held a prominent position in the government. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to confirm this event.

Some historians believe that only part of the Israelites was in Egypt, joining other groups to form the people of Israel. Experts also disagree with the image of a slave-owning Egypt and the large numbers mentioned in the account. Excavations have not found traces of settlements related to the Exodus.

The Israelites Become a Nation under God

Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt during the Passover Plague, which devastated Egypt and allowed the Exodus towards the Land of Israel. Raised in the Egyptian court, Moses renewed the Hebrews covenant with Yahweh at Mount Sinai. Although his name is of Egyptian origin, there is no archaeological evidence or Egyptian sources to prove his existence before 850 B.C. Some scholars consider Moses to be a literary figure representing historical events, but do not rule out his possible existence.

Before he died, Moses proclaimed Blessings for the Jewish people’s obedience and Curses for their disobedience, determining that these consequences would follow them forever. For centuries, the Israelites lived without a king or capital. This changed with the reign of David, around 1000 B.C., who established Jerusalem as their capital.

Conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land

The migration of the Hebrews from Egypt to Canaan, known as the Exodus, is considered by some historians to be a mythicized narrative, with no evidence of a mass migration. The conquest of Canaan, seen as a divine gift, marks the transition of the Hebrews from nomads to a nation with territory. Although the biblical account in Joshua describes a military conquest, archaeologists such as Pierre de Miroschedji point to anachronisms, such as cities that did not exist in 1250 BC.

Several theories explain the occupation of Canaan. The "Peaceful Settlement Theory" suggests a gradual migration, while the "Revolt Theory" proposes that the Hebrews were revolting peasants. The "Gradual Evolution Theory" argues that the distinctions between Israelites and Canaanites arose later. Upon arriving in Canaan, the Hebrews faced Canaanites and Philistines. According to André Chouraqui and Karen Armstrong, the occupation was more gradual, with Israelite tribes infiltrating the region. During this period, judges led the tribes, culminating in Samuel crowning Saul as the first king.

Period of the Judges (c. 1200–1020 BCE)

After their liberation from Egypt under the leadership of Moses and the reception of the Ten Commandments, the Hebrews spent forty years in the desert. Upon entering Canaan, led by Joshua, the tribes organized themselves in a decentralized manner under the Judges, who were military and spiritual leaders, such as Samson, Deborah, and Gideon.

During the Period of the Judges, the Hebrews faced conflicts with neighboring peoples, such as the Philistines. This period, marked by leaders whose heroic deeds are narrated in the Book of Judges, presents a Judaist version of the conquest of Canaan, although the historicity of this time is debated due to chronological problems and Deuteronomist editions.

Hebrew law, considered immutable and given by God, was interpreted by rabbis. After the Babylonian siege in 586 BCE, which resulted in the enslavement of many Hebrews, the need arose for a new oral law to affirm Hebrew culture in the face of foreign influences. This process culminated in the oral codification of Hebrew law, the Michnah, conducted in 192 CE, addressing rural laws, marriage law, divorce, and the organization of the courts, resembling contemporary Civil Law.

Philistines and the Single Monarchy: Saul and Ish-bosheth (1026-1000 BCE)

The Hebrew occupation was shaken by the Philistine invasions around 1180 BCE, during the invasions of the Sea Peoples in the Near East. The Philistines captured the Ark of the Covenant after the Battle of Ebenezer, a sacrilege that, according to Hebrew ideology, should have resulted in instant death. Due to Philistine threats, the Hebrews asked for a king to unify the people.

Samuel anointed Saul, from the tribe of Benjamin, as their first king. Saul spent much of his reign fighting the Philistines and other enemies, but after disobeying God, David replaced him. Saul's reign ended tragically when he committed suicide after a defeat by the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, where he also lost his sons, including Jonathan.

After his death, his son Ishbaal assumed the throne but was assassinated, paving the way for David to unify the kingdom of Israel. David, initially king of Judah, consolidated power, uniting the houses of Saul and David and establishing a unified kingdom.

Period of the Kings (c. 1020–586 BCE)

The Hebrews initially lived in tribal communities. Conflicts with the Philistines led to the appointment of Saul as king around 1020 BCE. After liberation from Egypt, the Hebrews organized themselves into twelve tribes led by judges, the best known of whom Samson was. In the 11th century BCE, faced with the threat of the Philistines, the tribes agreed to form a centralized state, with Saul as the first king, followed by David and Solomon.

This kingdom stretched from southern Lebanon to the Sinai Peninsula, between the Mediterranean and the Jordan River. During Solomon's reign, the Hebrews enjoyed their heyday as skilled traders and built important buildings in Jerusalem, including the city walls and the famous Temple of Solomon, which would be destroyed by invaders.

David and Solomon, or the United Kingdom (1000–924 BCE)

David conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital, receiving the promise of a coming “Christ” that created anticipation of the Messiah among the Jews. He made Jerusalem a religious center and expanded his rule over neighboring kingdoms. As he grew older, he named his son Solomon as his successor. Solomon ruled for forty years and was described as wise and wealthy.

He made political alliances through marriage and completed the construction of the First Jewish Temple, which David had begun. David’s descendants ruled for four hundred years during a period of glory for Israel. However, growing corruption was ignored, and after Solomon’s death, the kingdom split. The north was destroyed by the Assyrians and Judah by the Babylonians, beginning the Babylonian Exile.

Temple of Jerusalem

The biblical account says that Solomon built a temple in the 10th century BC that was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BC, but there is no archaeological evidence of Solomon's Temple. The first evidence that demonstrates the existence of a Temple in Jerusalem is indirect – the centralization of worship with the desecration of previously active sites – and occurs only around the year 700 BC, much later than the date given in the biblical account.

The kingdoms of Judah and Israel

The death of King Solomon caused the division of the Hebrews into two kingdoms: Israel in the north and Judah in the south, which weakened them and facilitated enemy invasions, such as the Assyrian conquest in 722 BC. In 587 BC, Jerusalem was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar II who destroyed Solomon's Temple and the Babylonian Captivity. After the fall of the Babylonian Empire, the Hebrews were able to return, but without the same success. In 70 AD, they were conquered by the Romans, who again destroyed Solomon's Temple and scattered the Hebrews throughout the world.

Historicity of David and Solomon

Scholars have questioned the existence of a large Hebrew kingdom under Saul, David, and Solomon, suggesting that biblical accounts have exaggerated their importance. Exaggerations, such as the size of David's army in 2 Samuel, and the lack of archaeological evidence for a unified monarchy or a capital in Jerusalem support this view. Despite the mention of David on the Tel Dan stele, Solomon does not appear in Egyptian or Assyrian records.

Archaeologists such as Amihai Mazar consider the kingdoms of David and Solomon to be a developing state. The Babylonian Captivity ended in 539 BCE, and in 332 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Palestine. With the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Jewish Diaspora began, but many Jewish peasants remained, gradually losing their original identity, according to historians such as Shlomo Sand.

Jewish Diaspora

The Jewish Diaspora refers to the dispersion of the Jewish people outside the Land of Israel throughout history, especially after remarkable events such as the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BCE and, later, the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE. These events led to the migration of Jews to various regions of the world, including Europe, North Africa, and later the Americas. The concept of the Diaspora has also become relevant in contemporary discussions about identity, migration, and belonging.

Babylonian Captivity

After the destruction of Jerusalem, many Jews were deported to Babylon. During this period, religious practice and Jewish identity were maintained and even reinforced, with the compilation of sacred texts, such as the Torah. The exiles of the Hebrews to Babylon, known as the Babylonian Captivity, occurred in three phases during the sixth century BCE:

First Exile (597 BCE) – King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon conquered Jerusalem and deported a portion of the Hebrew elite, including members of the royal family, nobles, and artisans. This occurred after the rebellion of King Jehoiachin of Judah against Babylonian rule.

Second Exile (587/586 B.C.) – After another revolt, Nebuchadnezzar returned, destroyed Jerusalem, including Solomon's Temple, and deported most of the remaining population of Judah to Babylon. This is the most significant event of the Babylonian exile.

Third Exile (582 BCE) – Another group was deported after a minor rebellion against Babylonian rule. The exile lasted until 538 BCE, when the Persian king Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem.

Roman Rule (70 CE) – The destruction of the Second Temple and subsequent Roman repression led to a mass exile, resulting in Jewish communities in regions such as the Roman Empire, Persia, and eventually Europe.

Cultural and Religious Developments – The Diaspora allowed for the development of diverse traditions and interpretations of Judaism, such as Rabbinic Judaism, which became the predominant form of religious practice after the destruction of the Temple.

Impact of the Diaspora

Cultural Identity – the Diaspora helped shape a rich and diverse Jewish identity, with variations in language, customs, and religious practices.

Integration and Isolation – while some communities integrated into local societies, others faced discrimination and persecution, such as anti-Semitism.

Movements and Conflicts – the Diaspora was also a context for the emergence of Zionist movements in the 19th century, which sought a return to the Land of Israel, culminating in the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.

Return from Exile Under the Persians

After the exile, the Persian emperor Cyrus conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return to their land, now a province of the Persian Empire. Over the course of two hundred years, the Jews rebuilt the Second Temple and the city of Jerusalem, although many remained in exile. Then Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and made the Israelites a province in the Greek empires for another two hundred years as part of the Greek empires.

The Romans defeated the Greek empires and became the dominant world power. Once again, the Jews became a province in this empire, at the time when Jesus lived. This explains why there are Roman soldiers in the gospels. The Romans ruled the Jews in Israel during the life of Jesus.

Zionist Movement

In the 19th century, the Zionist movement, led by Theodor Herzl, began to occupy lands in Palestine, with the support of England, which sought political and economic interests in the region. The UN, influenced by the Holocaust, created the State of Israel and a Palestinian State in the West Bank and Transjordan. In 1948, the Jewish struggle for statehood intensified, involving acts of violence such as the Deir Yassin Massacre, in which more than a hundred Palestinians, including the elderly and children, were killed and the survivors expelled.

The Holocaust

The Holocaust was the systematic genocide of six million European Jews conducted by the Nazi regime of Adolf Hitler during the Second World War (1939-1945). In addition to Jews, other groups such as people with disabilities, homosexuals and political dissidents were also persecuted and killed.

The extermination took place in concentration and extermination camps such as Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor. The victims were subjected to forced labor, inhumane conditions, and mass executions. The Holocaust was part of the "Final Solution", the Nazi policy of eliminating Jews from Europe. The event is widely considered one of the greatest crimes against humanity and led to the creation of international treaties against genocide.

Naqba, the Catastrophe

The Naqba, or “catastrophe” in Arabic, refers to the mass exodus of approximately 700,000 Palestinians during the 1948 Arab Israeli War, which occurred alongside the creation of the State of Israel. This event resulted in the disintegration of Palestinian society and the destruction of villages, with many Palestinians expelled or forced to flee their homes.

The origins of the Naqba lie in the conflict between Palestinian Arabs and Zionist Jews under the British Mandate, which intensified after the UN Partition Plan of 1947, which divided Palestine into two states, which was rejected by the Arabs. With Israel’s independence in 1948, the conflict escalated, culminating in the forced expulsion of Palestinians.

Many never returned, and the refugee issue remains central to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Every year, the Naqba is commemorated by Palestinians on May 15 as a symbol of the loss of their homeland and the ongoing struggle for self-determination and the right of return.

For Israelis, the 1948 war marks the founding of the State of Israel. The Naqba remains an open wound, especially in the face of recent clashes, such as the Hamas attacks on October 7, 2023, which resulted in the deaths of more than a thousand Israelis and more than two hundred as hostages of Hamas. This triggered a devastating Israeli response against the Gaza Strip. The authoritative journal The Lancet found that direct and indirect deaths in Gaza could reach 186,000 people. There are thousands of unrecovered bodies under the rubble created by the bombings that have yet to be counted. More than 97,303 Palestinians have been injured in Gaza.

Casualties in the Gaza Strip

On October 1, 2024, Israel invaded Lebanon as part of an escalation of the conflict with Hezbollah, following a series of setbacks suffered by the group in September. The Israeli operation targeted Hezbollah's infrastructure in southern Lebanon, with airstrikes degrading its capabilities. However, Lebanese authorities report the deaths of around two thousand civilians, including more than one hundred children, and six thousand injured. Among the dead was Hassan Nasrallah, Hezbollah's secretary general, who was confirmed dead on September 27֎

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