History and time. Time and history
The understanding of what History is and the form it should take is flexible and open to debate. Historians have different ideas about how the past should be studied, constructed, written, and interpreted. Thus, they can approach History in diverse ways, using different ideas, methods and prioritizing various aspects.
Therefore, as in Philosophy, defining what History is not an easy task. I researched a lot and chose to start with the definition of Professor Vitor Soares, graduated in History from the University of Barra Mansa and professor of History in the city of Angra dos Reis. Vitor is the creator and presenter of the podcast História em meia hora (History in Half an Hour). In the episode What is History, on April 17, 2020, he used a very dynamic way to define what History is and which I describe here in a concise way. It starts with the following sentence:
History is what History studies to write History.
As you can see there are three words “history” in the sentence. The first of these refers to historical time. History is not only the past, but “time.” The pyramids in Egypt were built two thousand years before Christ. The French Revolution took place at the end of the 18th century. Brazil was three times soccer champion in 1970. Covid 19 was stronger in 2021. My last birthday was last year. Yesterday and today are also past. What you did ten minutes ago is also past, which was once present and future. The present is yesterday's future and today is tomorrow's past. Time never stops.
We call historical time the forms of social organization that we create, the perception we have of the transformation of human beings and the forms of organization of human societies. To know who we are today we need to know who we were in the past. What we decide to do or not do today interferes with what we will be tomorrow.
You are reading this text because, in the past, they invented the internet. The construction of communication networks in the past is what made the internet possible. These communication networks were created before to link distant communities and these communities were able to communicate because of writing. Therefore, the first time the word “history” appears in the sentence it refers to historical time. Updated, the sentence looks like this:
Historical time is what History studies to write History.
Let us now see the second time the word “history” appears in the sentence. In this case, it is who is studying historical time. And who studies historical time is historical science. It is made in unusual ways. For example, older people can simply share facts from the past with younger people. This is what we call oral tradition.
Before writing, humanity only had oral tradition to explain the past. Sumerians invented writing about three thousand years before Christ. They wrote down bureaucratic things like the amount of agricultural production for the week.
The Greek thinker Herodotus was the first to transcribe stories that passed orally from generation to generation. Between 450 and 430 BC, he wrote his only book, the monumental Histories. The title of the work comes from the word ἱστορίαι, created by him and which means “investigations.” Therefore, Herodotus was the first to conceive of a historical method capable of reconstituting and explaining the History of his time.
This reveals the essence of the craft of those who dedicate themselves to the study of History: research, which, contrary to common sense, is not based only on written and official documents, but on all human production that carries with it expressions, ideas and needs of a certain time.
Because of his work, Herodotus became known as the "Father of History". His work brought new questions and new ways of seeking to understand human groups, giving rise to a literary genre that gradually consolidated and which we call History.
All this is the work of a historian. To do research you need to find and select historical sources. In general, everything that was produced by human beings can be used by the historian to research the historical time in which he is interested.
After finding the historical sources, the historian does what we call documentary criticism. He articulates information to produce an understanding of past events from the historical source. From time to time, added information about the past appears or a new historian proposes a reinterpretation of a certain event. This is how knowledge about historical time advances. Now we know that the word history can also mean historical science. The sentence now looks like this:
Historical time is studied by historical science to write History.
There are several ways to share the information gathered by historians and the most used is the book. This production is what we call historiography, the third meaning of the word History. Historiography is the study of how History is written and how our understanding of history changes over time. This study considers the approaches used by historians and seeks to understand how and why their theories and interpretations differ.
While the past itself never changes, History writing is always evolving. New historians explore and interpret the past. Historiography studies the best ways to interpret historical sources and the ways in which History is written. History is what is written about the past, with the aim of making it as close as possible to what happened. The sentence now looks like this:
Historical time is studied by historical science to produce historiography.
Or, more clearly, the
History is the study of historical time through
historical research presented by historiography.
Other definitions of History
The Greek word historia originally meant inquiry, the act of seeking knowledge, as well as the knowledge that results from inquiry. It is the study of humanity's past through the critical examination of records, documents, photographs, films, books, and any other support about past events that affected countries and communities.
For some scholars, it examines the action of human beings during a given time and investigates their behaviors and their consequences. There are also those who argue that this knowledge is dedicated to researching changes in different societies over the years.
What is History for?
Reviewing or studying the past fulfills distinct functions, from accumulating one's own knowledge to understanding the present. Only by studying how things happened in the past can we understand the configuration of current reality. This is why the past (remote or recent) is often the starting point for the study of a given topic. History, therefore, serves to:
Extract evidence and meaning from diverse sources - research, locate and interpret written material, artifacts, oral, digital, and visual sources. The ability to examine and compare variable data allows distinguishing truth, lies, manipulation and distortion of facts and objectives.
Evaluating conflicting interpretations - studying societies and human experiences is dealing with contradictions, ambiguities, conflicts, and divergent interests that have interfered in the past. The study of History is a training laboratory for identifying and evaluating conflicting situations that operate in the present – in politics, society, culture – providing subsidies to distinguish objectives, perceive changes or continuities and identify trends.
Analyzing changes and continuities - History does not study the dead and finished past, but the changes that occurred, their causes and developments, their magnitude and importance in the historical process. It is an essential skill for understanding our ever-changing world today. The transformations that took place in the past provide clues that help to reflect on the changes required in the present. Thus, it is possible to assess whether a given factor generates profound or superficial changes. Learning about History allows one to assess, for example, to what extent a technological innovation, a new educational policy or a social rebellion are, in fact, generators of significant changes or have only reorganized old structures.
Relate and confront diverse types of evidence - the study of History develops a broader view of events by establishing connections between distinct factors to understand how they interact. It also deals with different interpretations and versions of subjects, cultures, and peoples. This makes it possible to confront points of view and understand more complex situations in which it is necessary to “look at the forest and not just the tree.”
Producing knowledge and solving problems - historical research is often a leap in the dark. Historians always encounter unanswered questions. It is like putting together a gigantic jigsaw puzzle with no image to serve as a guide. They must evaluate their evidence, select relevant and reliable information, seek references for missing pieces of their research, develop arguments supported by reliable theories. The study of History produces knowledge to solve problems pointed out by the great questions that guide the historian's work.
Using multiple knowledge from different sciences - History is interested in all aspects of human life, which opens a massive range of research topics and approaches. Historical research uses knowledge and ideas from other sciences such as Anthropology, Archaeology, Geography, Psychology, Linguistics, etc. It is a science with multiple dimensions: there is a History of Music, Mathematics, Science, Medicine, Law, Education, Religion and even the History of History.
Argue and express yourself in different languages in a clear and reasoned way - History works with a huge diversity of documents: texts, photographs, caricatures, graphics, tables, maps, artifacts, audios, visual arts, etc. This enables the historian to use different languages, to read critically and to question all the material he examines. Historians' skills are needed more than ever in a world rife with fake news. Based on the collected and analyzed material, the historian formulates and defends his ideas with clear, orderly, grounded, and understandable statements.
The historical consciousness
History is essential to awaken and strengthen the bonds of cohesion in a community. Historical awareness is a crucial element for overcoming the marks of the past that led to inequalities, prejudices, and social stigmas. Historical knowledge instigates the individual to question his own world and look for ways to make it better. It inspires people to recognize the importance of ethics, tolerance, empathy, welcoming and valuing diversity.
She teaches us what it means to be human, highlighting the great achievements and disastrous mistakes of humanity. She also teaches us by example, giving tips on how we can better organize and manage our societies for the benefit of all.
In addition, the historical understanding of the facts helps us to reflect on coexistence in society. It also helps in understanding the differences between cultures and countries, assessing the paths that lead certain social groups to act in one way or another, as well as developing critical thinking.
What is historian and how does he work
Historians are people who analyze, interpret and research the past through the analysis of historical documents. Their main work is historical research. They write articles and books based on their studies and interpretations. First, they bring together information gleaned from archives, artifacts, books, documents, and written records. Then they analyze the data from these documents.
The historians look for things that confirm the authenticity of the collected documents. They also looks for meaningful ways to understand History based on artifacts. The main purpose of their historical research is to help the public understand historical events and past cultures.
Many historians use what they learn to educate the public. They do this through magazine and newspaper articles, presentations, and written records. They present their historical research findings to large and small groups. Their audience can come from investors, nonprofits, or the public.
Historical knowledge is cumulative, that is, what is studied by a historian serves as a source for future historians. The study of History specializes in a specific theme, topic, or region, so it is possible to talk about the history of anything. It should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of how history is written.
All historians are researchers. They know the construction processes of the present in all its spheres like cultural, economic, and political. Therefore, they have a high capacity for analyzing complex and abstract issues that influence and dictate the direction of our lives – even if we do not explicitly perceive it.
Historians are, therefore, individuals who study life, the human trajectory in time, their relationships, traditions, feelings, and actions. Understanding how people built this world to the present is a useful tool for improving the world our ancestors created.
Auxiliary Sciences of History
History is one of the oldest disciplines created by humanity, and one of the most specialized possible. The historical approach can be applied to any reality, including other sciences and disciplines, whether it be art, a nation, or the universe itself. The auxiliary sciences of History are those that collaborate with it in the interpretation of its documentary sources. Some of them are:
Archeology - one of the scientific disciplines that study the relationships between material culture and long-term established societies. It provides new discoveries and new contexts from which to think about the past.
Anthropology - area of study of the human sciences that intends to investigate the origins and characteristics of the human being in the broadest viable way. It is a branch of the social sciences that studies the human being and its origin in a comprehensive way.
Ethnography - specialty of Anthropology, whose purpose is the study and description of people, their language, race, religion, and material manifestations of their activities. It provides useful anthropological and sociological data to use the present as a reference to the past.
Astronomy – is the oldest science in the world. She investigates the celestial bodies in their structure, formation, and life cycle, in addition to the phenomena that happen in the Universe. It allows understanding the cosmological organization of ancient cultures, many of which had their own calendars.
What is Archaeology?
Archeology is the science that studies material traces of human presence, whether ancient or recent, with the aim of understanding the most diverse aspects of humanity. It can be said that the archaeologist is the detective who has the obligation to investigate the most diverse types of material remains to understand the context of human activities in each time and space.
For this type of work, the archaeologist must have a good understanding of human sciences, biological sciences, earth sciences, and even exact sciences. The archaeologist is the most interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary scientist you can find.
In these environments, professionals in the area use techniques to look for objects and traces of ancient people. In addition, sites that receive major works such as hydroelectric plants, roads and subways are also the object of work by archaeologists. They conduct prior research before the works begin, excavate, and rescue the past through the preservation and study of the materials found.
It is up to the entrepreneur (mandatory, by law) to hire a team of archaeologists to conduct the local consultancy, verifying the presence of archaeological sites, diagnosing the impact, and conducting the rescue of the material that can be found. In some cases, depending on the importance of the “finds,” the archaeologist must, together with the entrepreneur, rethink whether to conduct the undertaking.
The roots of Archeology go back to the Egyptians and Greeks. But science only evolved when more elaborate tools emerged, and excavation techniques were devised. One of the first to develop Archeology was the English philosopher John Aubrey (1626-1697). He not only made archaeological discoveries but was also a pioneer in recording artifacts from the famous – and mysterious – stone monument of Stonehenge, located in the south of England.
Throughout History, other researchers have ventured into research and excavations to unravel the past of various cultures. Some of the great archaeological sites are marks of the stories of ancient civilizations revealed to the world, such as the city of Crete, in the Greek islands, Machu Picchu in Peru, and the Pyramids of Egypt. In Brazil, Archeology emerged along with other disciplines of Natural History and gained strength at the end of the 19th century, when the Republic was already in place. Here, Indigenous cultures were the first to be studied and even today it reveals surprises to archaeologists.
What we call archaeological remains are the material objects identified in archaeological sites. An archaeological site is a place where there was some human occupation in the past. Artifacts made of stone and ceramics are some of the most found in such ancient sites, as well as rock representations and skeletal remains, whether human or animal.
Studies on human skeletons are important for us to understand how we become biologically tall, short, black, white, etc. Through the study of food remains, we understand how we practice our food production until today and discover ways of feeding that had ceased to exist and that may still be useful. These studies on artifacts help to understand how technologies have developed and how we discover cultural aspects that we can learn from and take as an example for future generations.
Archaeologists can work in museums, curating exhibitions, and archeological collections, in addition to being able to contribute to the restoration of objects. There is also academic research, conducted by Brazilian institutions in museums and universities with their departments of Archaeology, Anthropology, History, Biology, Geology, and other related areas.
Historical documents, the historian's tools
Documents are, par excellence, the work tool of the historian. When choosing the topic of his research, he does a bibliographic survey and reads other people's productions on the subject. Then he goes in search of sources, raises doubts, and questions that must be resolved. The historians must problematize it, throw questions at it, so that they can discover the answers.
By delimiting their research, they search for clues about a certain subject that he will approach. Their sources can be the most diverse: a photograph, a diary, an agenda, or a menu, among others. There are three main types of documents:
Textual documents – written traces.
Oral documents – spoken traces.
Visual documents – vestiges of images.
All traces of the past, whether voluntary or not, are subject to historical analysis. In fact, anything, be it a text, an object, a photograph, a statue, or an old chair are vestiges of the past. But not all these objects are documents. What transforms the trace into a document (or, if we use historiographical language, into a source) is precisely the use made of it by the historian, that is, as the historian chooses a trace to analyze it, extracting information about a certain time, it becomes a document. (Santiago; Araújo; Grinberg, 2011, p.165).
Most of the time, the past is used to understand the present or as a tool for reconstructing the present, as stated by Hobsbawm (2013). The intention is not to copy the past or predict the future, but to understand how transformations took place over time, because, as Marc Bloch, French medievalist historian and one of the founders of the Annales School, defined History (2001, p. 55), it is the “science of men in time”. It is man himself who makes History and who tells it, who goes in search of traces to be studied and reconstructed.
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