Art in Ancient Egypt was always linked to the commemorative and propagandistic intentions of absolute central power, with complex symbols linked to religion and funerary traditions. The term art did not even exist in the Egyptian language, the artist's task was certainly to materialize the symbols of earthly and supernatural power. Dynastic art was characterized both by the rigorous harmony of geometries and by the vastness of the themes described and the richness of the divine pantheon.
The introduction of a religious moral system that inspired the Book of the Dead (or Book of the Rising of the Day) and all subsequent art was also fundamental. The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text usually written on papyrus and used since the beginning of the New Kingdom.
Records
The scenes were ordered in parallel lines, known as records. These records separate the scene and provide baselines for the figures. Unrecorded scenes are uncommon and only used to specifically evoke chaos; Battle and hunting scenes often show prey or foreign armies without landlines.
Records were also used to convey information about scenes – the higher up in the scene, the higher the status; overlapping numbers imply that those below are further away, as are elements further up in the record.
Scale Hierarchy
Difference in scale was the most used method of conveying hierarchy – the larger the scale of the figures, the more important they were. Often kings were shown on the same scale as deities, but both are shown larger than the elite and much larger than the average Egyptian.
Sculpture
Most of the sculptures of Ancient Egypt are representations of pharaohs and gods, presented in frontal, static forms and without any facial expression. Great attention is paid to faces, with greater delicacy in modeling and characteristics. The great abundance of stone material in Egypt determined a remarkable wealth of sculptural works since the Old Kingdom.
Sculptures of pharaohs are typically depicted in a static pose, with staged movements of their arms and legs. These poses are consistent across different sculptures, with the pharaoh either standing with his left foot forward, sitting cross-legged, or sitting with his left hand resting on his thigh.
The marble statue portrays a man standing in an Egyptian pose and was unearthed in Hadrian's Villa located in Tivoli, Italy. It originates from the Roman era and is estimated to date back to 135 AD. The statue presently resides in the State Museum of Egyptian Art situated in Munich.
Over time, a set of established proportions was developed for creating the distinct parts of the human body. At first, there was a naturalistic style evident in figurines of animals and mothers holding their children. This was later replaced by greater realism in Djoser's regal statues. Eventually, there was a shift towards greater idealism and elegance.
During this period, materials such as ivory, bone, solid wood, gold, granite, and hard stone were used. They were worked with copper tools and stone hammers.
In the Eleventh Dynasty, the human figure was depicted as powerful and massive to convey strength and stability, as the pharaoh's statue was supposed to. The works of this dynasty express the warlike conception that the pharaohs had of their monarchy. In the Twelfth Dynasty, royal statues had a softer model, with calm and serene facial expressions. The pharaoh was represented as the intermediary between men and the gods.
With the Thirteenth Dynasty, the powerful canons of the Middle Kingdom were recovered. During the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, facial features became more masculine and broader. With Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III, the portraits took on an idealized character. During the Amarnian Revolution, the idealized style was abandoned in favor of a more realistic one that allowed the reproduction of physical defects and the creation of sculptures in less hieratic and more everyday poses.
The Nineteenth Dynasty returned to a more classical and traditional representation, inspired by models from the Thutmosid Period. Under Ramses' rule, facial features lost their severity and softened, assuming the typical smiling expression of the entire iconographic repertoire of Ramses II's reign.
The Bas-relief
The bas-relief can be considered a form of expression halfway between painting and sculpture. The materials for the sculptures were rocks of a truly diverse nature (sandstone, siltstone, limestone, slate, etc.). Sculpture has more affinity with painting, from which it takes its main characteristics: the profile canon, the hierarchical order of figures according to their size, the absence of depth, etc.
Low relief representing Queen Tiye. 18th Dynasty
of Ancient Egypt. 1398-1338 BC.
All this can be seen in the Narmer Palette (Egyptian Museum in Cairo), a slate tablet of great value not only for the art of Egypt but also for its political history, as it is considered by many to be the foundation and landmark of the Ancient Empire, where King Narmer wears the crowns of Lower and Upper Egypt.
The bas-reliefs were generally polychrome, as if they were a mural painting. They were often located on the walls of buildings, especially in temples. The pillars gave a spectacular welcome to the faithful thanks to their extraordinary large and colorful bas-reliefs.
The obelisks, fully decorated, also contributed to this. In interior spaces, it was quite common to engrave iconographic programs, for example on the columns of hypostyle rooms. The sanctuary was one of the most profusely decorated parts with engravings and mural paintings.
Hieroglyphics were of enormous importance, as in the disciplines of Egyptian art. They appeared carved or sculpted on the surface, often occupying the entire space between the figures.
The cosmetic palettes, made of top-quality wood and other light materials, can be considered authentic sculptural works. They contained certain beauty and body care products and could integrate human figures of great artistic value, with the canons of bas-relief.
The High Relief
In high reliefs, the representation of the figure is three-dimensional, unlike the two dimensions of painting and bas-reliefs. Although these works allow a wider, 360-degree view of the round sculptures, it is worth mentioning that the law of frontality has always prevailed. The works were designed to be seen from the front. Therefore, the profile canon no longer makes sense.
Another of the unmistakable characteristics of sculpture and, in general, of all art in Egypt is hieratic, which refers to the solemn, rigid, and inexpressive gesture of the characters. In the case of the pharaohs, it is done as a sign of respect and divinization.
One of the best examples is the sculptural group of King Menkaure, flanked by the gods Hathor and Hardai, located in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Greater fidelity to life is observed when representing the human figure, even in an idealized way in the case of the pharaohs. In the case of other protagonists, such as the courtiers, the realism is more pronounced, with almost no dissimulation or idealization.
In these works, the iconographic canons of the representation of the pharaohs are shown, better than any other object of art in Egypt. The statues and even the funerary masks and sarcophagi captivate us, with the classic cloth headdress tied on the back, which in many cases is made of gold and lapis lazuli.
It also allows you to better appreciate the golden objects: an erect snake at forehead height that represents the protection of the goddess Wadjet. Or the prominent (false) beard to identify with the god Osiris. Or her usej necklace, used as a talisman in invoking the god Hathor.
The idealized naturalism denoted the great mastery of technique by the artists of Ancient Egypt, who worked with stones of quite different hardness and qualities, with polished finishes of great perfection. Some of the rocks used in this type of sculpture were diorite, granite, or basalt, but also other materials such as ivory and, of course, gold, in addition to bronze, sometimes gilded, demonstrating the good knowledge of metallurgy of the sculptors and goldsmiths Egyptians.
As for typologies, full-length figures are common: in the case of pharaohs, standing or sitting on a throne. And in the case of scribes, it is common to represent them sitting on the floor, with their legs bent. The busts are also famous, especially those of the queens.
That of Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaten, which is in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin. Therefore, idealization also affected women, in this case with a marked stylization of the neck, although this characteristic can be attributed to other stylistic conventions typical of the so-called Amarna Period (New Kingdom).
The country of Egypt is home to many monuments that feature colossal sculptures. One type of sculpture is the Egyptian sphinx, which was created in monumental sizes and placed at the entrances of temples to ward off evil spirits. Sphinxes had a lion's body, representing strength, and a human head, representing wisdom. They were often associated with temples or funerary enclosures and sometimes represented deified pharaohs. For example, the Abu Simbel sphinx represented Ramses II.
Small figurines were also present in tombs. They were used to represent the deceased, deities, or mythological characters who could give support and strength to the deceased in the afterlife. Ivory, minerals with special characteristics, and precious metals were commonly used for these figurines, as well as for necklaces and jewelry used as amulets.
Representation Modes for Two-dimensional Art
Egyptian artists used two-dimensionality to create representative images of each element in scenes. Rather than attempting to replicate the real world, they took each object or element from its most recognizable angle and grouped them together to create a whole.
Therefore, the images of humans show the face, waist, and limbs in profile, but the eyes and shoulders from the front. These complex composite images provided complete information about the various elements, rather than images conceived from a single point of view, which would not be as comprehensive in the data they transmit.
The country of Egypt is home to many monuments that feature colossal sculptures. One type of sculpture is the Egyptian sphinx, which was created in monumental sizes and placed at the entrances of temples to ward off evil spirits. Sphinxes had a lion's body, representing strength, and a human head, representing wisdom. They were often associated with temples or funerary enclosures and sometimes represented deified pharaohs. For example, the Abu Simbel sphinx represented Ramses II.
Small figurines were also present in tombs. They were used to represent the deceased, deities, or mythological characters who could give support and strength to the deceased in the afterlife. Ivory, minerals with special characteristics, and precious metals were commonly used for these figurines, as well as for necklaces and jewelry used as amulets.
Limestone and paint. Relief fragment from Amarna, New Kingdom.
Cat plays with its owner. Built largely from small, equally sized blocks
of limestone (Talatat), many were later used as fill for temple pillars.
Representation Modes for Three-dimensional Art
Three-dimensional representations also aimed to reproduce the real world. For instance, statues of gods, royalty, and the elite were designed to convey an idealized version of the individual. The material used to create the statues dictated some aspects of naturalism. Stone statues were quite closed, with the arms close to the sides and limited positions. They had a strong back pillar that provided support, and spaces were left between the limbs.
On the other hand, wooden and metal statues were more expressive. The arms could be extended and held separate objects, spaces between the limbs were opened to create a more realistic appearance, and more positions were possible. The stone, wood, and metal statues of elite figures served the same functions and maintained the same type of formalization and frontality. Only figurines of people of lower status displayed a wide range of actions. These pieces often focused on actions that benefited the elite owner rather than the people involved.
Text and Image in Sculptures
Text and images are commonly found together in sculptures. In statuary, the identifying text is usually placed on the back pillar or base, while the relief often bears captions or longer texts that complete and elaborate the scenes. Hieroglyphics are often represented as small works of art that represent phonetic sounds, while others are logographic, which means they represent an object or concept.
Sometimes, the lines between text and image can become blurred. For instance, in the text of a statue, the name of a figure may omit the determiner, which is an unspoken sign at the end of a word that aids identification. Verbs of motion are followed by a pair of walking legs, men's names end with the image of a man, and the names of the gods with the image of a seated god. In these cases, the representation itself fulfills this function.
Asar Kush Khafre with its original nose.
In Egyptian art, the pharaoh was always depicted larger in proportion to other elements in the painting. This was done to convey the pharaoh's immense power. The paintings did not include three-dimensional elements with shadows, and limbs were often painted from the side while torsos and eyes were painted from the front.
Temples in Egypt were considered the homes of the gods and were designed to represent the world. The temples were constructed with symbolic elements, and the earliest ones were built as funerary monuments for pharaohs before evolving into cult buildings. The temples featured an outer courtyard with columns accessible to the public, while the inner enclosure was covered with columns and was accessible only to priests and officials. The temple complex was enclosed by walls, and the design of the space invited the faithful to pass through it in procession.
Egyptian sculpture was typically frontal and rigid, and primarily made from stone. Wood and ivory were also used for sculptures, which were often painted to imitate reality. To ensure that sculptures lasted for eternity, they were designed without any protruding elements such as open arms or accessories to prevent them from breaking or falling. Characters were generally shown in two positions: standing with the left leg in front or sitting. The pharaoh was always depicted on the throne, while officials were shown on the ground. The reliefs also followed the same conventions as the paintings in their representations.
Architecture
The architecture reflects functionality, which gives it incomparable solidity and durability for the time. The pyramids of the Giza desert are the most famous architectural works of Egyptian architecture. It is also in the Giza region that the Great Sphinx of Giza is located. While the mastaba was the tomb of the Egyptians, the pyramids were the tombs of their pharaohs, considered God's representatives on earth. The base of the triangle represented the pharaoh, and its tip represented his connection with God.
The two main building materials used in ancient Egypt were raw mud bricks and stone. From the Old Kingdom onwards, stone was generally used for tombs, the eternal abodes of the dead, and for temples, the eternal homes of the gods. Mud brick remained the household material, used even in royal palaces, fortresses, great walls of temple precincts, cities, and subsidiary buildings in temple complexes.
Most of the ancient cities in Egypt were lost due to their location in the flooded and cultivated area of the Nile Valley. Nonetheless, many temples and tombs were built on elevated land and hence survived the floods. Therefore, any study of Egyptian architecture tends to focus on religious and funerary structures. However, some mudbrick structures have also managed to survive due to the dry and hot climate, which has protected them from water and human destruction.
The Temples
The temples were constructed using stone to represent the world and incorporated symbolic elements. Initially, they were built as funerary monuments for the pharaohs, but with time, they transformed into buildings dedicated to religious worship.
Funerary Temples
The basic structure of an Egyptian temple consists of an access avenue with cryocephalic sphinxes, a massive external pillar that leads to the peristyle (or Colonnaded Courtyard), the hypostyle hall (symbolizing the primordial swamp from which the primordial mountain emerged), the vestibule for priests and the preparation of cults, and the naos, reserved for the king or prophet.
Most of the funerary temples of the New Kingdom were situated along the edge of the desert west of Thebes, with the exception of the temple of Queen Hatshepsut, which was designed and built by her administrator Senenmut near the tomb of Mentuhotep II at Dayr al-Baḥrī. The temple had three terraces that led to the cliff recess where the sanctuary was carved into the rock.
Each terrace of the temple features colonnades made of square pillars that protect unique reliefs, including an expedition to Punt and the divine birth of Hatshepsut. Ramps connect the terraces, and the upper level opens onto a large colonnaded courtyard. The chapels of Hathor and Anubis are situated at the southern and northern ends of the colonnade on the second terrace, respectively.
The interiors of the temple are adorned with hieroglyphics and polychrome relief decorations, which follow the previous styles. This "terraced" temple type is particularly scenic but not typical of the historical period, dating back to the Eleventh Dynasty. Even Thutmose III, Hatshepsut's successor, ordered the construction of a terraced temple that is located today between the temple of Mentuhotep II and that of Hatshepsut.
In the New Kingdom, the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens were established as the permanent resting places of the pharaohs and their families for around 500 years. The pharaohs were buried in their cities of origin, typically within the sacred precincts of the city's main temple, to prevent looting.
The tombs are arranged on two levels, with the chapels above for the worship of the deceased and the burial chamber below. The pharaohs of Napata built small pyramids made of stone blocks near the capital. During the late period, mammisi, or small buildings in which the birth of the main god was celebrated, were introduced.
Cult Temples
Regarding the Old Kingdom's temple cult, it is generally believed that it was focused on the cult of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. It was It is likely that the office space will be designed as an open-plan layout. and had no sanctuary. Sun temples were unique among cult temples; worship was centered on a cult object, the benben, a squat obelisk placed in full sunlight.
There are a few temples that have survived from the Old Kingdom, but the sun temples of the Fifth Dynasty kings at Abū Jirāb are among them. The essential layout of Neuserre's temple reveals a reception pavilion at the edge of the desert which is connected by a covered corridor to an elevated walkway that leads to the open courtyard of the temple high in the desert. The courtyard contains the limestone benben and an enormous altar of alabaster. Beautiful reliefs decorate the covered corridor and corridors on both sides of the court.
Temples in Ancient Egypt typically consisted of two parts: an outer courtyard with columns that was accessible to the public, and an enclosed inner area with covered columns where the image of the god was placed in a sacred boat. Access to the inner area was restricted only to priests and certain officials.
Temple Architecture
Temples were constructed with various entry points, but the fundamental design concept remained that of a "telescope". The temple of King Amenhotep III, known as the "Million Years" temple - of which only the Colossi of Memnon can still be seen today - was even more impressive than the temple of Amun. It is believed to have covered an area of almost 350,000 square meters.
It was made up of two pillars that followed each other, followed by a third pillar that led to an avenue that was probably closed by walls, which in turn led to a solar courtyard where there were five bases of statues of the king that were particularly interesting for understanding the extent of the king's power.
The bases bear crenellated ovals superimposed on prisoners with bound arms, and are evidently lists of toponyms, lands, or localities, or cities, or peoples, under Egyptian jurisdiction. The En stele, better known as the "Aegean stele", contains toponyms of Cretan cities and the Greek continental area as proof of political-commercial links with these geographical areas.
From 2510 BC, around the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty, the first solar temples appeared, such as Abu Gurab, built to venerate the most important deity in the Egyptian pantheon at the time, Amun-Ra, god of the sun, father of the gods and creator of life in the world.
The temples of Aten in Akhetaten were a remarkable achievement in architecture. They primarily consisted of a series of courtyards where several altars were situated. The cult of Aten involved a form of collective worship, hence the presence of multiple altars. This style of architecture was used only during the period of "heresy", which was followed by a shift to the old gods under Tutankhamun, and finally, a return to the architectural style of the Templars during his successor Horemhab's reign.
Tombs
Tombs were an essential part of the pharaoh's journey to the afterlife. They were constructed to serve a symbolic function and were built by Egyptian architects, who were also priests. During the evolution of tombs from the first to the last dynasty, four types emerged:
Mastaba - were the oldest tombs, built during the Old Kingdom. They were low brick structures resembling a truncated pyramid. Inside was an offering chapel and inner chambers that sheltered the pharaoh's body.
Pyramid - had both practical and symbolic functions. They served as the pharaoh's tomb and were symbolic of the sun (Ra). They were built with large blocks of stone during the Old Kingdom and part of the Middle Kingdom.
Stepped pyramid - were built during the Old Kingdom and served as a transition between the mastaba and the pyramid. Djoser's pyramid, located in Sakkara, was created by stacking five mastabas of decreasing size and had false doors to prevent them from being desecrated.
Hypogeal tomb - emerged during the New Kingdom. They were excavated in the rock.
Mastabas
Mastabas represented the evolution of simple burial pits with mounds of earth from the previous era. The tombs featured mounds of clay bricks on the surface resembling a truncated pyramid that tapered upwards. The facades were modulated with protrusions and recesses, creating plays of light and shadow. The internal tombs ranged from a single grave (pre-dynastic period) to numerous funerary rooms that housed the body of the deceased and their grave goods. These rooms were connected by narrow corridors.
Royal Tombs
During the early dynasties, the tombs of high officials and kings were constructed using mud bricks, and their sizes were so similar that it was challenging to differentiate one from another. The tombs located in Abydos are authentic, while those in Ṣaqqārah are more distinguished and better preserved. The latter tombs showcase rectangular superstructures, known as mastabas, featuring sides constructed in the form of paneled niches. These niches are painted white and decorated with intricate "matte" designs.
The superstructures were built over numerous storage chambers that housed food and equipment for the deceased. A rectangular burial chamber situated beneath the ground contained these storage chambers. Moreover, the superstructure also included a low mound of earth, which may have represented the tomb of earlier times, although this wasn't always evident.
Egyptian mummy in the Louvre Museum in its original state
In the Middle Kingdom, a new architecture was developed that would serve as inspiration and model for the construction of buildings in subsequent eras. Funerary temples range from a simple building to a true palace for the afterlife of the deceased, with various elements taken from previous and innovative eras. Along with the small pyramids, there are courtyards with porticoes, rooms with colonnades, chapels and kiosks for processions and rites linked to the cult of the late pharaoh, avenues flanked by sphinxes and obelisks positioned at the entrances.
Royal Tomb Architecture
Mortuary architecture was highly developed and often grand. The tomb was a place where a corpse could be protected from desecration and given material objects to ensure continued existence after death. Part of the tomb could be decorated with scenes that would allow the individual to magically seek an afterlife suitable and similar to their mundane existence.
For a king, the tomb was the vehicle by which he could reach his exclusive destiny with the gods in a heavenly afterlife. Most tombs comprised two main parts, the burial chamber and the chapel, where offerings could be made to the deceased. The chapel quickly became a mortuary temple. From the New Kingdom onwards it was generally built separately and at some distance from the tomb.
Private Tomb Architecture
An important distinction between royal and non-royal tombs lies in the provision of arrangements for the funeral cult of the deceased. The evidence available from the First Dynasty makes it clear that king and commoner had very different expectations. They were tombs dedicated to nobles, dignitaries, court officials, richest artisans and their families.
The construction of tombs became widespread, from simple mastabas to miniature reproductions of the royal pyramids. Life after death, initially the exclusive prerogative of the royal family, is guaranteed to anyone who has enough money to build a tomb, be able to decorate it with paintings and reliefs indicating the instructions to reach, through the Duat, the world of the dead and be able to embalm the body itself.
The Pyramids
The pyramids are an iconic expression of Egyptian culture, dating back to the Old Kingdom. The first stepped pyramid was commissioned by Pharaoh Djoser in Saqqara during the Third Dynasty (c. 2700 - 2650 BC). It was inspired by the ziggurats of Mesopotamia, as well as traditional tombs and mastabas. The complex includes a funerary chapel, several rooms, like the Hall of Niches which housed the pharaoh's statues, and a funerary crypt.
Imhotep, a senior royal official, is traditionally credited with designing the pyramid and deciding to use quarried stone. The pyramid is notable for its design of six stages of decreasing size, as well as its enormous enclosure, surrounded by a paneled wall clad in fine limestone. The enclosure also contained a series of "mock" buildings, which likely represented structures associated with the sanctuaries and heraldry of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The Egyptian stonemasons introduced new architectural techniques by using stone to replicate the shapes of earlier wooden and brick structures. The underground complexes featured beautiful reliefs of the king and intricate tiled wall panels, which were considered innovative at that time.
Later, the funerary structures evolved independently and were characterized by a series of pillars and columns with or without capitals. This led to the creation of smooth-sided pyramids, including the renowned pyramids of Giza such as the Pyramid of Cheops, which is one of the oldest and most remarkable buildings in the world.
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