Peruvian women writer, journalist and activist Clorinda Matto de Turner was born in Cusco on November 11, 1853, and died in Buenos Aires on October 25, 1909. Recognized as one of the most influential figures in 19th-century Latin American literature, her work addresses social and cultural issues in Peru, with a special focus on exploring the living conditions of Indigenous peoples and criticizing gender inequality. She was also a pioneer of the indigenist genre. She was an independent woman, self-taught in physics, natural history, and philosophy.
Clorinda was born on the Paullu Chico farm, next door to her parents. Her original name was Grimanesa Martina Mato Usandivares, with her father's surname, Mato, and specifically the variant preferred by her father, Matto, which would give rise to the name that the future writer would finally adopt. Daughter of Grimanesa Concepción Usandivares and Ramón Mato y Torres, she spent all her childhood on the quiet family farm in the company of her parents and brothers, Ramón Segundo David, and Ramón Daniel.
On her parents' farm she had the opportunity to observe life in the countryside and learned to speak Quechua. She attended primary school at the Colegio de Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, in the city of Cusco, where she published her first articles in the school newspaper. She interrupted her studies after the death of her mother.
These years marked experiences that would be imprinted on his future writings: rural life, living with the indigenous population and his knowledge of the Quechua language; experiences that would be fundamental to the tenacious defense of the mountain peoples that he developed throughout his life through writing, an instrument that until that moment had not been used in Peru for this purpose.
He studied in Cusco at the Colegio de Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes, which would later be called the National School of Educators, where he showed his literary and journalistic vocation from an early age. He wanted to go to the United States to study medicine, but his father did not allow it.
Her life was marked by personal tragedies, literary commitment, and social activism. At the age of ten, she lost her mother and, years later, she abandoned her studies to take care of the house and her younger brothers, Ramón Segundo, Ramón Daniel, and Ramón Hermenegildo Matto Usandivaras, when her father accepted political office. In 1871, she married John Turner, an English doctor, and moved to Tinta, a city that would serve as inspiration for her most famous novel, Aves Sin Nido (Birds Without a Nest).
Clorinda began to collaborate with local newspapers under pseudonyms such as "Lucrecia" and "Bate-Seba". Her texts addressed education and female emancipation, as well as the living conditions of Indigenous peoples, themes that would shape all her future work. In 1876, with the support of her father and husband, she founded the magazine El Recreo del Cuzco, focused on literature, science, and the arts.
Her entry into literary circles occurred in 1877, when he visited Lima and met figures such as Juana Manuela Gorriti, Ricardo Palma and Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera. These encounters strengthened his commitment to literature and social reform.
War of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific (1879–1883) was a conflict between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru over territories in the Atacama Desert, rich in sodium nitrate. Despite previous treaties, Bolivia attempted to increase taxes on a Chilean company in 1878, leading to the occupation of Antofagasta by Chile and the declaration of war by Bolivia, with the support of Peru due to a secret alliance.
The Chilean occupation of Antofagasta, a commune and city in northern Chile, capital of the Province of Antofagasta and capital of the Region of Antofagasta, is the set of events of a military and political nature that occurred during the months of February and March 1879 that led to Chile's military and political control of the Department of the Litoral, then belonging to Bolivia. It is the first military campaign in the context of the War of the Pacific.
Chile quickly occupied the Bolivian coast, secured naval supremacy after victories at Iquique and Angamos (1879), and invaded Peru, capturing Lima in 1881. The Treaty of Ancón (1883) ended the war: Chile annexed Tarapacá and occupied Tacna and Arica for 10 years, with a plebiscite delayed for decades. The Pacific Question was resolved in 1929 with US mediation, returning Tacna to Peru and retaining Arica with Chile, in addition to a US$6 million in compensation to Peru.
Bolivia permanently lost its access to the sea in 1884, formalized in 1904 with the construction of a railway by Chile as compensation. The war devastated Peru and caused economic collapse and civil war. Bolivia sought alternatives for maritime access, culminating in the Chaco War with Paraguay (1932–1935).
During the conflict, Clorinda lost her husband and faced financial difficulties, but she remained dedicated to Peru, helping the wounded and turning her home into a hospital. After the war, she moved to Arequipa, where she began writing about topics such as patriotism, education, and Indigenous issues, which were fundamental to the country's period of reconstruction.
Civil War in Peru
After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), there was a period of intense political and military instability that worsened the country's already delicate situation. Defeat in the war resulted in the occupation of Lima by Chilean forces, the destruction of infrastructure, and significant territorial loss with the signing of the Treaty of Ancón in 1883, by which Peru ceded Tarapacá to Chile and came under foreign occupation in some regions.
The Peruvian Civil War of 1884–1887 pitted President Miguel Iglesias, who signed the Treaty of Ancón recognizing Chile's defeat, against Andrés Avelino Cáceres, a hero of the resistance. Iglesias, supported by the Chileans, faced opposition for his conciliatory stance, while Cáceres led sectors that rejected the treaty and sought to continue the resistance. The conflict devastated Peru, already weakened by the War of the Pacific, and ended with the victory of Cáceres, who assumed the presidency in 1886. However, instability continued, with regional rivalries and a devastated economy, which led Peru to a long phase of reconstruction and fragility.
Literary Career
Matto de Turner is known for addressing social issues in her works, especially the living conditions of Indigenous Peruvians and the country’s structural inequalities. Her most famous novel, Aves Sin Nido (1889), is considered a landmark of literary indigenism. The work denounces the exploitation of Indigenous people by local authorities, including corrupt clergy and politicians, exposing the abuses of power in Andean communities. This innovative approach provoked great controversy, with the author being the target of attacks by the Catholic Church and the conservative elite.
Journalism and Defense of Women’s Rights
In addition to being a novelist, Clorinda was one of the first women to run a newspaper in Peru, El Perú Ilustrado. She used her platform to advocate for female education, believing that women’s advancement was essential to the country’s development. She also published essays and articles that promoted social and cultural change.
Exile and Legacy
Matto de Turner’s progressive positions faced strong resistance. In 1895, after the rise of a conservative government, she was forced to leave Peru and went into exile in Argentina. Even in exile, she continued to write and influence intellectuals in Latin America.
Clorinda Matto de Turner's legacy is immense. She paved the way for literary indigenism and for women's participation in public and intellectual life in Peru. Her work continues to be a fundamental reference for the study of Latin American literature and social movements.
Activism and Journalism
In addition to her literary works, Clorinda Matto was an activist for the rights of women and Indigenous peoples. She directed and collaborated with publications such as El Perú Ilustrado, where she defended education as a tool for social emancipation and promoted literature as a means of transformation.
In 1884, she published two significant works: Elementos de Literatura, a manual focused on female education, and Perú-Tradiciones cuzqueñas, which brought together historical tales inspired by the traditions of Cusco. In the same year, he premiered his play Hima-Sumac, which denounced Indigenous oppression in the colonial era and connected historical issues to post-war nationalism.
Clorinda settled in Lima in 1886, where she joined the Literary Circle and the Ateneo. Under the influence of the reformist Manuel González Prada, her work began to reflect criticism of the ecclesiastical elites and social injustices. Her most famous novel, Aves Sin Nido (1889), became a landmark of literary indigenism, denouncing the exploitation of Indigenous people by the political, judicial, and religious systems. Despite being acclaimed, the work generated controversy and was condemned by the Catholic Church, leading to the author's excommunication.
That same year, she took over as editor of the magazine El Perú Ilustrado, which published renowned authors such as Rubén Darío. In 1890, an incident involving the publication in the magazine of the short story Magdala, by Enrique Coelho, which suggested Jesus' desire for Mary Magdalene, intensified the Church's persecution of her. Her excommunication and the banning of the magazine marked a moment of great conflict in her career.
Despite facing opposition, she continued writing and published Índole (1891), her second novel, in which she further criticized ecclesiastical corruption and the collusion between the Church, the army, and the government. In 1892, she founded, with her brother, the printing house “La Equitativa”, a publishing house that employed exclusively women. There, she published the biweekly magazine Los Andes and published works by herself and other authors, a major contribution to the dissemination of progressive ideas.
In 1894, the political situation in Peru worsened when General Cáceres faced Nicolás de Piérola in a coup d'état. Clorinda supported Cáceres, but with Piérola's victory in 1895, her house and printing press were looted, and she was forced into exile. Initially welcomed in Chile, she moved to Buenos Aires, where she found stability. In the Argentine capital, she became a teacher in women's institutions and translated books of the Old Testament into Quechua. She also contributed to important newspapers of the time and founded the magazine Búcaro Americano, dedicated to social and literary themes.
In 1902, she published Boreales, miniaturas y porcelanas, and in 1904, Aves sin nido was translated into English, expanding her international influence. A trip to Europe in 1908 was her last major project, during which she contracted chronic bronchitis. His impressions of the trip were published posthumously in 1909 as Viaje recreativa.
Literary Work
Clorinda Matto de Turner is best remembered for her novel Aves Sin Nido (1889), one of the most important Latin American novels about Indigenous peoples, which addresses the oppression of Indigenous peoples by colonists and local elites. The story concerns the romance between a white man and an Indigenous woman. Considered a landmark in Indigenous literature, it was revolutionary for bringing to light themes such as corruption, exploitation, and social inequality. Despite its importance, the book generated controversy and was condemned by the Catholic Church, which resulted in the author's excommunication and the confiscation of her assets.
Aves Sin Nido
Published in 1889, Aves Sin Nido is a novel by Clorinda Matto de Turner and a landmark of literary indigenism in Latin America. The work denounces the injustices suffered by Andean Indigenous peoples during the colonial and republican periods, exposing the corruption and exploitation promoted by local elites, the Church, and the political system.
Set in the fictional village of Kíllac, the story follows the couple Lucía and Fernando Marín, representatives of the educated middle class, who try to help Marcela and Juan Yupanqui, Indigenous people persecuted for resisting abuses by the local governor and priest. The story addresses issues such as poverty, oppressive taxes, forced labor, sexual violence, and religious corruption. The title, "Aves Sin Nido" (Birds without a nest), symbolizes the lack of security and belonging of the Indigenous people in their own land, living as foreigners in a territory that should be their home.
Literary Themes
Social denunciation – Clorinda portrays in depth the conflicts between the Indigenous people and the colonizers and exposes social hierarchies and structural racism.
Criticism of the Catholic Church – the author strongly criticizes the local clergy, portrayed as complicit in the exploitation of the Indigenous people, while at the same time suggesting an alternative religiosity based on ethical values.
Gender issues – although the focus is racial and economic oppression, the novel also addresses the submissive role of Indigenous women and questions the machismo of Andean society.
Early indigenism – marks a pioneering effort to give voice to Indigenous communities, even with some limitations of the paternalistic perspective of the time.
Clorinda Matto de Turner's style is direct and didactic, prioritizing the social message with simple language and linear narrative, to sensitize a wide audience about indigenous problems. Aves Sin Nido generated controversy, leading to the author's excommunication and censorship, but it has established itself as a seminal work of Latin American literature. It influenced generations of writers and opened a lasting dialogue on ethnic and social inequalities, marking the beginning of an essential debate in the region.
A seminal work is a pioneering creation that lays the foundations for new developments in a field, profoundly influencing later ideas and practices. The term, derived from "seed", indicates that the work bears fruit by inspiring debates, movements, or schools of thought.
In literature, philosophy, or science, she represents a remarkable innovation, often seen as a historical milestone. For example, Clorinda Matto de Turner’s Aves Sin Nido is considered seminal in Latin American indigenism, as it denounces the injustices suffered by Indigenous peoples, influencing generations of writers, and introducing social and cultural issues that shaped the literature and thought of the region.
Other important works include:
Indole (1891): A novel that also addresses social and cultural issues in Peru.
El Heraldo Cristiano: A collection of essays and religious texts that reflect her interest in spirituality and ethics.
Death
Clorinda Matto de Turner died in Buenos Aires on October 25, 1909. In 1924, her remains were taken to Lima in a ceremony of recognition. Her work, marked by her commitment to human rights, helped shape the indigenist movement and remains relevant in Latin American literature and social activism.
Legacy
Clorinda Matto de Turner is considered one of the pioneers of the indigenous movement in Latin America. Her work not only paved the way for debates on social justice and equality, but also served as an inspiration for future generations of writers and activists. Despite the controversy she faced during her lifetime, her work continues to be studied and valued as an essential part of Peruvian and Latin American literature.
Memorable Quote:
“Escribir es sembrar ideas, y sembrar ideas es sembrar cultura.” (Writing is sowing ideas, and sowing ideas is sowing culture) ֍
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Wikipedia ֍ Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes ֍ Beneficiência Cusco ֍ Biblioteca Virtual de Filología Española ֍ Encyclopedia.com ֍ SSRN ֍ Oxford Universty Press
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