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Origins and Early Centuries of The Vatican
The Vatican was built on the site where Saint Peter, the apostle of Jesus and the first Pope, was martyred and buried. It is believed that he was crucified in the Circus of Nero, where St. Peter's Basilica now stands. Emperor Constantine built the first Basilica in the fourth century. During the Middle Ages, popes became political leaders, engaging in conflicts and alliances. In the 16th century, the Basilica was rebuilt, and Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo transformed the Vatican into an artistic and cultural center. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty recognized the Vatican as an independent state, with the Pope as its sovereign.
Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei
Opus Dei, or the Prelature of the Holy Cross and Opus Dei, is a personal prelature of the Catholic Church, composed of lay people and priests. Founded by Josemaría Escrivá in 1928, it was officially established as a personal prelature in 1982 by Pope John Paul II.
With over 60,000 members, Opus Dei aims to help the faithful sanctify their daily lives through spirituality and Christian virtues. Although it faces controversy due to its reserved nature, its members seek to live their faith in their daily activities, promoting charity and personal apostolate while respecting the freedom and opinions of others.
National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida
The city of Aparecida, in São Paulo, is famous for the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida, the largest Catholic temple in Brazil and the second largest in the world, and, first, St. Peter's Basilica. The devotion began in 1717, when fishers found an image of the Virgin Mary in the Paraíba do Sul River, which was taken to the construction of the sanctuary after reports of miracles.
Millions of pilgrims visit the site, especially on October 12. The current sanctuary, begun in 1955, with a capacity for 30,000 people, replaced an old wooden chapel and a colonial sanctuary. The complex has infrastructure for large crowds, including ramps, elevators, an outpatient clinic, a food court, shops, an amusement park, and parking for 2,000 buses and 3,000 cars, with security guaranteed by two hundred agents.
Vatican and Mussolini
The Vatican City State was formalized by the Lateran Treaty, signed in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy, represented by Benito Mussolini, and the Holy See, represented by Cardinal Pietro Gasparri. The "Roman Question" arose after the unification of Italy in 1870, when Rome was annexed and the popes considered themselves prisoners in the Vatican, refusing to recognize Italian authority.
The Lateran Treaty resolved the conflict by recognizing the Vatican as a sovereign state and regulating relations between the Church and the Italian State, granting privileges to the Church, and compensating it for territorial losses due to Italian unification.
What is a Prelacy?
A prelacy is an ecclesiastical structure of the Catholic Church that designates a district headed by a prelate, not being a traditional diocese. It may include parishes or religious communities. Opus Dei is the best-known example of a prelature, characterized as a personal prelature where its members, spread across different dioceses, are under the authority of the prelate of Opus Dei, who can be a bishop or a priest.
Pilgrimages are Necessary
Pilgrims are people who travel to sacred places motivated by faith, seeking a deeper connection with the sacred and fulfilling promises or rituals. Pilgrimages are common in several religions, such as Christianity, which includes destinations such as Aparecida do Norte and Santiago de Compostela; Islam, with the Hajj to Mecca; and Hinduism, with the sacred Ganges River. The Vatican approves and encourages these trips as expressions of the Catholic faith, allowing the faithful to deepen their relationship with God and seek graces. The Church recognizes the importance of pilgrimage for spiritual renewal.
The Vatican and World War II
During World War II, the Vatican maintained neutrality and offered humanitarian assistance. The Second Vatican Council, convened by Pope John XXIII in the 1960s, brought reforms that opened the Church to modern dialogue. Recent popes, such as John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis, have addressed global issues such as peace and social justice. The Lateran Treaty, signed in 1929, established the sovereignty of the Vatican, an independent state of forty-four hectares, and ended a 60-year conflict between the Church and the Italian State by recognizing papal independence and strengthening Mussolini's regime by gaining the support of the Church.
Self-flagellation in Opus Dei
Saint Josemaría Escrivá emphasized that the best penances come from daily life, such as smiling even when tired. Opus Dei promotes prayer and penance to sanctify daily life, encouraging meditation, participation in Mass, frequent confession and sacrifices, valuing devotion to Our Lady and the imitation of Christ.
Self-flagellation, or corporal mortification, is practiced by some members as a way of disciplining the body and strengthening the spiritual life, using methods such as the cilice. These practices, which are voluntary and discreet, aim to participate in the sufferings of Christ, and are defended as traditional methods of spiritual growth, if they are done in moderation.
Holy Commerce
The relationship between pilgrimage and commerce is historical and generates economic activity in sacred regions. Cities with shrines, such as Aparecida do Norte, develop tourist infrastructure that includes hotels and restaurants. Pilgrims buy religious articles, such as images and candles, to enrich their experience.
Events such as Our Lady of Aparecida Day attract millions of faithful people and increase the demand for products and services that generate temporary jobs. The pilgrimage stimulates local commerce and investment in infrastructure, benefits both visitors and the community, and transforms this spiritual practice into an economic and local development engine.
Was the Catholic Church negligent towards Jews and Nazism?
The Catholic Church’s response to the Holocaust is debated. Pope Pius XII maintained a neutral stance during World War II, condemning violence and racism in general but not explicitly referring to Nazis or Jews. Although criticized for not clearly condemning the Holocaust, the Vatican secretly helped Jews with false documents and shelter.
In 2020, the archives of Pius XII were opened to shed light on the Church’s actions. The Church’s relationship with Mussolini’s fascism was complex; although the Church initially supported the regime, tensions arose, especially after the 1938 racial laws. Pius XI criticized racism, and Pius XII adopted a pragmatic stance.
Commerce or Exploitation of Faith?
Although economically important, religious commerce in Aparecida is also controversial. Some critics argue that, in certain cases, there may be an exploitation of faith, by transforming popular devotion into an opportunity for excessive profit.
However, many see this trade as a legitimate way to sustain the local economy, support families, and provide items important for religious practice. In general, religious trade in Aparecida is well-received by visitors, who see it as part of the pilgrimage experience, but the line between devotion and the commodification of faith is often debated.
Opus Dei's Relationship with the Franco Regime
Opus Dei has faced criticism throughout its history, being seen as "the most controversial force in the Catholic Church." Journalist John Allen Jr. highlights the need to contextualize Opus Dei's relationship with the Franco regime in Spain, since Escrivá did not take a clear position on Franco, and some members held positions in Francoist governments.
Escrivá and his successors deny elitism and emphasize the diversity among the 100,000 members. Criticism includes allegations of secrecy, controversial recruitment, and support for authoritarian regimes. Defenders of Opus Dei say the prelature is unfairly maligned and that it is necessary to distinguish between what is "myth" and what is "reality."
Immediate Post-war Consequences
In June 1944, the Allies entered Rome, where Pope Pius XII was the most prominent figure, due to the decline in prestige of the Italian king after the fall of fascism. There was even talk of increasing the temporal power of the papacy. The pope granted audiences to Allied soldiers and leaders with extensive photographic coverage.
During the war, Pius XII did not appoint cardinals, which resulted in important vacancies such as the Secretary of State and the Camerlengo. In 1946, after announcing his intentions the previous Christmas, he finally appointed thirty-two cardinals, filling these key positions.
At the request of the Pave the Way Foundation (PTWF), in 2010 the Vatican agreed to digitize and publish online 5,125 documents from the Vatican Secret Archives, spanning from March 1939 to May 1945. Some documents on the actions of the Church and the Pope are already online: the scientific community is calling for all these documents to be investigated.
Criticism of Opus Dei
Criticism of Opus Dei includes allegations of secrecy, controversial recruitment, rigid rules, elitism, misogyny, and support for authoritarian regimes, such as Franco’s in Spain. Defenders of the prelature consider these criticisms slanderous and claim that they stem from opposition to its values in a hedonistic society. Vatican scholar John Allen distinguishes the “Opus Dei of myth” from the “Opus Dei of reality.”
Opus Dei, described as “the most controversial force in the Catholic Church,” gained attention after the publication of Dan Brown’s book The Da Vinci Code in 2003. The book portrays violence among Opus Dei members. In September 2021, forty-three women from Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia denounced the institution to the Vatican, alleging human trafficking and labor exploitation֎
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