Ben Jonson (1572–1637), born in Westminster, was a Renaissance playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic, a contemporary and rival of Shakespeare. His best-known works include Every Man in His Humor, Volpone, The Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair.
The British Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement that took place between the 16th and early 17th centuries, influenced by the Italian Renaissance. It marked the flourishing of the arts, literature, and theater in England, especially during the reign of Elizabeth I. Ben Jonson, William Shakespeare, and Christopher Marlowe were central figures of this literary era.
During the British Renaissance there were advances in science, philosophy, and geographical exploration, as well as the strengthening of the English language. Although less focused on the visual arts than the Italian Renaissance, its legacy in literature and theater remains fundamental to Western culture.
Jonson lived in a period of great social and political change and was highly respected by his contemporaries, including John Donne. He lost his father before he was born and was raised in modest circumstances. His mother remarried to Robert Brett, a successful builder who provided some stability for the family. Although of Scottish origin, Jonson retained a deep pride in his family heritage.
Names linked to the theater |
Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593) was an English playwright and poet of the Elizabethan era, considered a precursor to Shakespeare. His work was notable for its innovation in blank verse and its bold use of themes such as power, ambition, and religion. Among his most famous plays are Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta and Doctor Faustus, which explores the pact with the devil. Shrouded in mystery, Marlowe had a life marked by intrigue, espionage, and a tragic end, being killed in controversial circumstances at the age of twenty-nine. |
John Donne (1572–1631) was an English poet and clergyman, considered one of the main exponents of metaphysical poetry. His work is marked by the combination of spirituality, passion, and intellectual complexity, with the use of elaborate metaphors and paradoxes. Poems such as The Flea and Death Be Not Proud reflect his ability to explore themes such as love, mortality, and faith. After a bohemian youth, he became an Anglican and Dean of St. Paul's Cathedral, producing deeply influential sermons and meditations. |
Thomas Kyd (1558–1594) was an English playwright and poet, best known for his work The Spanish Tragedy, a landmark of Elizabethan theatre and a precursor to the genre of urban tragedy. Kyd influenced the development of modern drama with his intricate plots of revenge, violence, and passion. His work mixed political and psychological themes, with complex characters. Although his life was short and controversial, Kyd left a legacy, being a key figure in the transition from medieval to Renaissance theatre. |
Fragmented education
Ben Jonson's education changed when he entered Westminster School, where he studied under William Camden, a renowned antiquarian who had a profound influence on him. Camden introduced Jonson to the arts and classical learning, becoming a lifelong friend and mentor. Jonson formed lasting friendships with intellectuals such as Robert Cotton and Hugh Holland and received a solid education in rhetoric and classical literature, practicing translations of Greek and Latin works.
Camden also encouraged him to write verse and adopt a technique of beginning his works in prose. Although he may have studied at Cambridge, financial difficulties forced him to return to London, where he collaborated with his stepfather, but showed notable dissatisfaction with the profession of bricklayer.
Soldier, bricklayer, and future playwright
In the early 1590s, at the age of eighteen, Ben Jonson left his bricklayer's trade and joined the English forces in the Low Countries, possibly in 1591 during Maurice of Nassau's campaign against the Spanish. He distinguished himself in combat, killing an enemy and taking his weapons, a feat that earned him recognition.
Back in England in 1592, Jonson resumed his studies and began his career in the theater, acting and writing for The Green Curtain, a modest theater in London. Although reports suggest that he was not a good actor, he was excellent at instructing others until he abandoned acting to focus on writing and became a prominent playwright.
Despite his growing literary fame, he maintained a membership with the Tylers' and Bricklayers' Company from 1595 to 1611, from the ages of twenty-three to thirty-nine, suggesting that he may have returned to manual labor in times of trouble. This affiliation also provided him with citizenship and social stability. In 1618, at the age of forty-six, he was received in Edinburgh as a "Burges" and "Guild brother", indicating that he still maintained ties to the guild, a fact that highlights the importance of artisan training in his life.
The Guild was an association of merchants or artisans in medieval Europe, created to regulate activities, ensure the quality of products, and protect the interests of its members. They controlled prices, trained apprentices, and defended collective rights, influencing the local economy.
Names linked to the theater |
Thomas Dekker (1572–1632) was an English playwright and writer of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, known for his plays, pamphlets, and poetry. His works often dealt with urban life, reflecting on social tensions, commerce, and the living conditions of London. Among his most famous plays are The Shoemaker's Holiday and Old Fortunatus. Dekker also collaborated with other playwrights, such as Ben Jonson and John Webster. His style is characterized by social criticism, humor, and empathy for the humble, as well as a remarkable ability to create vivid, realistic characters. |
Thomas Nashe (1567–1601) was an English writer and playwright, known for his satirical style and irreverent wit. His works included essays, poetry, and plays, and were notable for their scathing critique of the society and customs of his time. Nashe is best known for his only novel, The Unfortunate Traveller, a picaresque satirical tale of Renaissance England. In addition, his collaboration with other playwrights, such as Christopher Marlowe, and his involvement in literary debates made him an influential figure in the development of Elizabethan theatre. |
Henry Porter (1561–1599) was an English playwright and writer, active during the Elizabethan period. Although his output is not as vast as that of his contemporaries, he is remembered for his plays, including The Two Angry Women of Abington and The Fair Maid of the West. Porter also engaged in the popular literature of the period, writing pamphlets and essays. His works often portray themes of love, humor and comedy and reflect the public's taste at the time for entertaining dramas. |
Early career as a playwright
Jonson's experience of the theatre began early, through regular performances of Latin plays at school, particularly comedies by Plautus and Terence, which he enjoyed. These school performances had a lasting influence on his work, and he referred to them in later plays such as The Staple of News (1626) and The Magnetic Lady (1632).
Early in his career, Ben Jonson may have worked as an actor in a travelling company, possibly the Pembroke Company, playing the role of Hieronymus in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy , a play that influenced his later work. Teasers of this role appear in Thomas Dekker's play Satiromastix , suggesting that Jonson had had this experience in his youth. Philip Henslowe, theatre manager, hired Ben Jonson in 1601 and 1602 to add material to Kyd's play, although the authorship of these additions is uncertain.
These formative early years gave Jonson a solid grounding in both literature and drama, preparing him to become one of the most important literary figures of his time. His education and connections at Westminster School were essential to his development as a poet and playwright in a career that would lead to lasting success and recognition.
Political troubles arising from the stage
In 1594, aged twenty-two, Ben Jonson married Anne Lewis, suggesting that he was already involved in the Bankside theatre scene. His earliest surviving play, The Case is Altered, was performed in 1597 by the Pembroke Company. Influenced by Plautus, it dealt with themes of reunion and cross-courtship.
In the same year, Jonson collaborated with Thomas Nashe on The Isle of Dogs, a controversial play that satirized members of the Court, which resulted in the closure of London theatres and the imprisonment of Jonson and other actors. Accused of "dishonorable and rebellious behavior", Jonson was arrested but released in October 1597, aged twenty-five.
Names linked to the theater |
Henry Chettle (1564–1607) was an English playwright and writer of the Elizabethan era, known for his contributions to the theatre and for his collaborations with other playwrights such as Thomas Nashe and Robert Greene. Chettle is best known for his plays The Tragedy of Hoffman and Kind Heart's Dream, as well as his collaboration on numerous pamphlets and texts. His work blends comedy and tragedy and reflects the human complexities and social dilemmas of the time. His output is considered significant in the context of Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre. |
Inigo Jones (1573–1652) was an English architect and stage designer, widely regarded as the introducer of the Renaissance to British architecture. Influenced by Italian architects such as Andrea Palladio, Jones designed notable buildings such as the Banqueting House in Whitehall and the Queen's House in Greenwich. He also revolutionized theatrical set design in England, collaborating with Ben Jonson on productions such as The Masque of Blackness. His legacy is fundamental to the transition from medieval to classical architecture in the United Kingdom. |
George Chapman (1559–1634) was an English poet and playwright, known for his translations of Homer's works, especially the Iliad and the Odyssey, which influenced English literature. In addition to his translations, Chapman wrote several plays, many of which address themes of tragedy and morality. His most famous work is Bussy D'Ambois, a tragedy that highlights the Baroque style. He was also a contemporary of Shakespeare, with whom he maintained a relationship of rivalry and mutual admiration on the London stage. |
Despite the order to close the theatres, the Lord Admiral's Men returned to perform, while the Pembroke Company was disbanded. Henslowe attempted to employ Jonson, who, without officially joining the company, wrote several plays over the next two years, including Hot Anger Soon Cold and Page of Plymouth, many of which have been lost.
He collaborated with playwrights such as Henry Porter, Henry Chettle and Thomas Dekker. Although Francis Meres considered him one of the finest tragic playwrights of his time, no tragedies from this initial period survive. In 1619, at the age of forty-seven, Jonson admitted that half of his comedies had never been printed, many having been lost through collaboration or commissions.
Early successes
In the autumn of 1598, at the age of twenty-six, Ben Jonson achieved success with Every Man in His Humor, performed by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, Shakespeare's company, which recommended the play and participated in the production. Inspired by Plautus, the play incorporated the medieval medical theory of "humors", representing different human temperaments.
Revised in 1616, the play was set in London and was featured in the folio edition of Jonson's works. The character Bobadilla is compared to Shakespeare's Falstaff for his swashbuckling charm.
During the performance of Every Man in His Humor, Jonson killed the actor Gabriel Spencer in a duel, claiming self-defense. He escaped execution by reciting the "neck verse", a biblical psalm that allowed him to prove his Latin erudition. Nevertheless, he was branded a criminal and had his property confiscated. While imprisoned, he converted to Catholicism, influenced by the Jesuit priest Thomas Wright, with some of his early poems influenced by his new faith.
Names linked to the theater |
C.H. Herford (1853–1931) was a renowned English literary critic and professor, specializing in the works of William Shakespeare. His most significant work is the critical edition of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, in collaboration with his wife, Edith Herford. Herford also wrote extensively on Elizabethan literature, notable for his detailed analysis of the style and historical context of Shakespeare's works. His scholarly and careful approach contributed significantly to Shakespearean studies, influencing generations of scholars and readers. |
Philip Henslowe (c. 1550–1616) was a prominent Elizabethan theatre owner and impresario, known for his association with the Lord Admiral's Men. He was responsible for the management of the Rose Theatre, one of the first dedicated theatre venues in London. Henslowe also kept detailed records of his theatrical productions, including payments to playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Dekker. His diaries are a valuable historical source on Elizabethan theatre and its influence on the drama of the time. |
Francis Meres (c. 1565–1647) was an English writer and academic, best known for his work Palladis Tamia, published in 1598. In this work, Meres makes one of the first mentions of William Shakespeare as a leading playwright of the time, comparing him favorably with the great writers of antiquity such as Plautus and Terence. Palladis Tamia is a compendium of literary commentary, covering poetry, drama, and music, and is one of the most important sources for understanding the literary and theatrical landscape of late sixteenth-century England. |
In 1599, at the age of twenty-seven, Jonson performed Every Man out of His Humor at the newly built Globe Theatre. Inspired by Aristophanes, the play was performed at Court over Christmas. Although the title suggested a sequel, the play was different in tone and structure and was considered a failure, despite being an attempt to please the Queen at the end of the performance.
New directions in his career
In search of new audiences, Jonson wrote Cynthia's Revels (1600) and Poetaster (1601) for children's companies, featuring satire and formal experiments. The Fountain of Self-Love, or Cynthia's Revels was performed by the Children of Queen Elizabeth's Chapel at the Blackfriars Theatre between 1600 and 1601.
Although it included praise for the Virgin Queen, references to her persecution of Actaeon and the ambitions of Criticus may have aroused political suspicion, especially in the shadow of the Essex Rebellion. Jonson extensively revised the play for its 1616 Folio publication at the age of forty-four, including satires on the Court that were not in the original version.
Poetaster, performed in 1601, was motivated by personal disagreements, particularly with the playwright John Marston. Jonson portrayed Marston satirically in the character Crispinus, who at the end of the play is forced to spew extravagant words, which Marston himself had used. In response, Thomas Dekker ridiculed Jonson in the comedy Satiromastix, presenting him as a vain and hostile figure.
Masks at Court
At the beginning of the reign of James I, in 1603, Ben Jonson became the favorite writer of the Court, creating theatrical spectacles and dramatic masques. However, his Catholic faith aroused suspicions that led to temporary imprisonment. In 1605, at the age of thirty-three, he was briefly involved in the Gunpowder Plot but collaborated with the authorities to prevent the plot.
With the accession of James I, Jonson stood out in productions for the Court, such as The Masque of Blackness (1605), in collaboration with the stage designer Inigo Jones. Despite his success, his relationship with Jones generated tensions due to the emphasis given to the sets to the detriment of his poetry. Jonson innovated by introducing the "antimasque", a comic dance that represented the victory of virtue, in productions such as Hymenaei and The Masque of Beauty (1605).
Jonson solidified his position as the leading playwright of James I's reign by creating satire and comedies that criticized politics and society. Volpone (1606), a dark comedy about fraud and corruption, was notable for its unusual ending for a comedy of the time. Other plays, such as Epicene, or The Silent Woman (1609) and The Alchemist (1610), demonstrated his skill at creating surprising and complex plots.
Problems with politics and religion
Ben Jonson came to prominence with his Entertainment at Althorp (1603), performed before James I's queen, and with The Masque of Blackness (1605), at Court. Masques were light entertainments, focused on dancing and singing for royalty.
Together with the designer Inigo Jones, he transformed these performances by introducing dramatic elements and allegorical meanings. His early masques, such as Hymenaei (1606) and The Masque of Queens (1609), were successes. However, his collaboration with Inigo Jones was strained, leading to a break in 1625, at the age of fifty-three.
With the recognition of his play Every Man in His humor, his financial situation improved considerably. Although his tragedies were respected, Ben Jonson is best remembered for his comedies. In addition to being a playwright, he distinguished himself in linguistics by paying close attention to phonetics and grammar. Although he did not attend university, Jonson was recognized as one of the great intellectuals of his time. He received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge.
Ancient Greek and Roman playwrights |
Aristophanes (c. 445–c. 385 BC) was a Greek playwright, widely considered the greatest exponent of ancient comedy. His plays are known for their irreverent humor, political satire, and social criticism. Aristophanes used his comedies to question political figures, contemporary philosophies, and social institutions. Works such as The Clouds, Lysistrata, and The Wasps address themes such as war, hypocrisy, and the struggle for power, employing a style of sharp language, wordplay, and comic exaggeration. His work profoundly influenced the development of Western comedy. |
Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254–184 BC) was a Roman playwright, considered one of the greatest exponents of comedy in ancient Rome. Plautus adapted and popularized Greek comedy, especially Menander's New Comedy, bringing it to Roman audiences with his lively comedies and humorous characters. His works, such as The Dogs, The Comedy of the Courtesans, and The Monastery, are full of puns, wordplay, and comic misunderstandings, often criticizing the social issues and vices of Roman society. His influence on the development of Western comedy is notable. |
Publius Terentius Africanus (c. 190–159 BC) was a Roman playwright who excelled in adapting Greek comedies for the Roman stage. Influenced by the work of Menander, Terentius brought a more refined and subtle style of comedy, focusing on intricate human relationships and moral dilemmas. His plays, such as The Brothers and The Hypocrite, address themes of love, friendship, and ethical behavior, and are notable for the elegance of their dialogue and the psychological depth of their characters. Terence is considered one of the greatest names in Roman comedy and influenced many later playwrights, including Shakespeare. |
Theatrical wars
The so-called "theatre wars" between Ben Jonson and contemporaries such as Marston and Dekker may have been exaggerated and were more a collaboration than a rivalry between the playwrights. The play Poetaster reflects the political tensions of the time, such as the Essex trial, with which Jonson and his Catholic friends identified. Personally, Jonson was seen as a recluse, but his domestic life was complex.
He lived for prolonged periods away from his wife Anne, whom he described ambivalently: "She is a shrew, but honest". Jonson also spent time with influential patrons such as Sir Robert Townshend. His family relationship was intermittent and marked by tragedy, including the loss of children, Benjamin, and the baby Mary.
Troubles with politics and religion
Between 1603 and 1612, aged thirty-one to forty, Ben Jonson, despite his position at the Court of James I, faced a series of controversies. In 1604, he and Sir John Roe were expelled from a masque for criticism, demonstrating his conflicts with authority. His play Sejanus (1603–04) caused trouble when he confronted Henry Howard, leading to accusations of "poppery" and treason.
The words "popery" (adjective Popish) and Papism (adjective Papist, also used to refer to an individual) are mainly historical pejorative words in the English language for Roman Catholicism, once frequently used by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians to label their Roman Catholic opponents, who differed from them in accepting the authority of the Pope over the Christian Church.
Sir John Roe (c. 1580–1644) was an English diplomat and explorer, ambassador to Persia and Turkey, and an important trade liaison. He also influenced Parliament by promoting British interest in Eastern trade routes and cultures.
Summoned to the privy council, Jonson had to remove offensive passages from the play. In 1605, Eastward Ho! written with John Marston and George Chapman, landed him in prison for insulting the Scots over the distribution of titles by James I. He was released after pleading for clemency. Jonson also attended a dinner with conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot but helped the government with the investigation.
His Catholic connections continued to cause problems. In 1606, at the age of thirty-four, he and his wife were called to Court on charges of not attending the Church of England. Jonson admitted to religious difficulties, promising to discuss them with theologians. During this time, he lived apart from his wife. Despite tensions with the Court and the Church, Jonson established his career with plays such as Volpone (1606), The Alchemist (1610), Epicoene (1609) and Bartholomew Fair (1614), which criticized human greed and became great successes in the public theatre.
Notable and influential figures |
William Camden (1551–1623) was an English historian, antiquarian and scholar, best known for his contributions to the study of English history and geography. His most famous work is Britannia (1586), a pioneering work on the history and geography of the British Isles, which established a foundation for antiquity studies and historical research in the country. Camden was also an advocate for the preservation of historical monuments and influenced the development of antiquarianism in England, promoting the appreciation of cultural heritage. He was also one of the first to study and organize historical documents systematically. |
Sir Robert Cotton (1571–1631) was an English antiquarian and collector, widely recognized for his contributions to the preservation and study of historical documents. He founded the famous Cotton Library, which later became part of the British Library. Cotton collected rare manuscripts and books, including important texts such as the originals of Beowulf and the Domesday Book. His collection was one of the most important sources of historical and literary scholarship in England and had a lasting impact on the development of historical scholarship and the preservation of British cultural heritage. |
Thomas Wright (1711–1786) was an English antiquarian, historian, and scholar, known for his work in the fields of history and archaeology. He is particularly remembered for his contributions to the study of ancient monuments and buildings, and for being a pioneer in the field of archaeology and the mapping of historical sites. Wright wrote several works on English history and ancient Roman architecture and developed a theory of the ancient circular stone sites such as Stonehenge, which he considered to be of great cultural and historical importance to the country. |
His works
Ben Jonson was one of the most important English playwrights after Shakespeare, known for his vast influence on theater and literature. In 1616, at the age of forty-four, the first edition of his works was published. Timber: or, Discoveries, with his reflections on poetry and drama, was published posthumously in 1640.
Although a critic of Shakespeare, Jonson also expressed great admiration for him. Jonson was England's first "poet laureate" and was noted for comedies that exposed the vices of society, such as Every Man in His Humor, Volpone, The Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair. His works, neglected after the Restoration, were revived in the 18th century, and influenced later theater.
Literary characteristics of Ben Jonson
Inspired by Latin authors such as Plautus and the theory of humor, Johnson created a style of comedy that influenced generations. His "comedy of manners" blended realism, satire, and the concept of humor, where characters were defined by a predominant exaggerated trait, generating characteristic humor and temperaments. This comic style influenced playwrights until the 18th century, reaching Romanticism.
Although his works had a realistic tone, Johnson also incorporated fantastical elements, creating situations that bordered on the absurd. He was influenced by medieval theater and had a desire for a more just world, possibly shaped by his conversion to Catholicism while imprisoned. This rigorous moralism appears in many of his works, whose aesthetics often give way to morality.
In addition to theatrical plays, Jonson was an expert in masquerades, festive entertainments with music, dance, and song. His multifaceted genius spanned many genres, including lyric poetry, epigrams, chronicles, letters, translations, and even grammar.
In 1616, at the age of forty-four, Jonson oversaw the publication of his Workers, an anthology of poems, plays, and other writings. In the same year, he received a life pension from the king, becoming England's unofficial national poet. After Shakespeare's death, Jonson was widely recognized as England's greatest living poet.
Representatives of the nobility |
Elizabeth I (1533–1603) was the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty and one of the most iconic figures in English history. Her accession to the throne in 1558 marked the beginning of a period of stability and prosperity known as the Elizabethan Age. Elizabeth was a shrewd leader, skillfully navigating religious, political, and diplomatic tensions. During her reign, England established itself as a naval and cultural power, notably the victory in the Spanish Armada (1588) and the flourishing of the arts, including the heyday of drama under William Shakespeare. Her long and powerful rule left a legacy. |
James I of England (1566–1625), also known as James VI of Scotland, was the first monarch to rule over both England and Scotland, following the union of the crowns in 1603. He was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and became king after the death of Elizabeth I, who left no heirs. James I is known for his attempts to unify the two nations, as well as his promotion of monarchical absolutism. His reign saw the publication of the King James Bible in 1611 and clashes with Parliament, which culminated in political tensions that would later influence the English Civil War. |
Charles I (1600–1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1625 until his execution in 1649. The son of James I, he attempted to rule without Parliament, which created great political tensions and led to conflict with Parliamentary forces known as the English Civil War. Charles believed in the divine rights of kings and the absolute authority of the monarchy. His refusal to share power with Parliament resulted in a political impasse and his eventual capture. In 1649, he was tried and executed for treason, marking a pivotal point in the history of the English monarchy. |
Later Years
In 1618–19, when he was forty-six or forty-seven, Ben Jonson did a walking tour of Scotland. He was honored in Edinburgh, and upon his return to England he received a Master of Arts degree from Oxford University. Despite his initial success, his popularity at the Court of Charles I wanted. In 1623, his library was destroyed by fire, and his final works were not well received. In 1628, at the age of fifty-six, he suffered a stroke that confined him. In the same year, he was appointed city chronologist, but his final years were difficult.
In the last years of his life, Ben Jonson faced financial difficulties but maintained an active and cheerful social life at home, entertaining friends. He had an additional income of one hundred £ as city chronologist, although his inefficiency in fulfilling the duties of the position resulted in his payments being stopped. His pension from Court increased, along with regular donations of Spanish wine, demonstrating his complex relationship with the theatre, politics, and his personal circumstances, as he struggled to balance ambitions and realities.
Despite the challenges, Jonson remained productive. His final collaboration with Inigo Jones, Love's Triumph through Callipolis and Chloridia, was performed in 1631, at the age of fifty-nine. However, disagreements over the order of their names led Jonson to omit Jones's name and criticize his innovations in a poem. He continued to produce entertainments for King Charles I, incorporating northern traditions and memories of his journey to Scotland. His later comedies, which focused on rural and romantic themes, were not successful.
The Restoration in England |
The Restoration in England refers to the period from 1660 when the monarchy was restored under Charles II, following the republican experiment of the Commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell. Following Cromwell's death and the dissolution of the republican government, Parliament invited Charles II to return to the throne, ending a period of almost 11 years without a monarch. The Restoration restored political order, but also brought cultural and social changes, including the reinstatement of the Church of England and the expansion of the arts, such as theater. This period also marked the beginning of an era of greater religious tolerance. |
Farewell to life
Despite suffering a stroke in 1628, aged fifty-six, Jonson continued to write, but died in 1637, aged sixty-five, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His funeral drew a large crowd, including the nobility. An inscription read: "O Rare Ben Jonson".
In 1638, a volume of memorial verse, Jonsonus Virbius, was published, with tributes from friends. Posthumous recognition included a second edition of his works in 1640–41, solidifying his literary reputation.
Unlike Shakespeare, Jonson excelled in several areas of Renaissance humanism. His ability to publish under his own name represented an advance in copyright. In the seventeenth century, Jonson was considered a leading writer, rivaling Shakespeare, but the comparison became problematic in the eighteenth century.
The modern recovery of his work began with studies by C. H. Herford and others, with praise from authors such as T. S. Eliot and James Joyce, reaffirming his importance in English literature. Bottom of form ֍
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