Ben Jonson (1572–1637), born in Westminster, was a Renaissance playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic, a contemporary and rival of Shakespeare. His best-known works include Every Man in His Humor, Volpone, The Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair.
The British Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement that took place between the 16th and early 17th centuries, influenced by the Italian Renaissance. It marked the flourishing of the arts, literature, and theater in England, especially during the reign of Elizabeth I. Ben Jonson, William Shakespeare, and Christopher Marlowe were central figures of this literary era.
During the British Renaissance there were advances in science, philosophy, and geographical exploration, as well as the strengthening of the English language. Although less focused on the visual arts than the Italian Renaissance, its legacy in literature and theater remains fundamental to Western culture.
Jonson lived in a period of great social and political change and was highly respected by his contemporaries, including John Donne. He lost his father before he was born and was raised in modest circumstances. His mother remarried to Robert Brett, a successful builder who provided some stability for the family. Although of Scottish origin, Jonson retained a deep pride in his family heritage.
Fragmented Education
Ben Jonson's education changed when he entered Westminster School, where he studied under William Camden, a renowned antiquarian who had a profound influence on him. Camden introduced Jonson to the arts and classical learning, becoming a lifelong friend and mentor. Jonson formed lasting friendships with intellectuals such as Robert Cotton and Hugh Holland and received a solid education in rhetoric and classical literature, practicing translations of Greek and Latin works.
Camden also encouraged him to write verse and adopt a technique of beginning his works in prose. Although he may have studied at Cambridge, financial difficulties forced him to return to London, where he collaborated with his stepfather, but showed notable dissatisfaction with the profession of bricklayer.
Soldier, Bricklayer, and Future Playwright
In the early 1590s, at the age of eighteen, Ben Jonson left his bricklayer's trade and joined the English forces in the Low Countries, possibly in 1591 during Maurice of Nassau's campaign against the Spanish. He distinguished himself in combat, killing an enemy and taking his weapons, a feat that earned him recognition.
Back in England in 1592, Jonson resumed his studies and began his career in the theater, acting and writing for The Green Curtain, a modest theater in London. Although reports suggest that he was not a good actor, he was excellent at instructing others until he abandoned acting to focus on writing and became a prominent playwright.
Despite his growing literary fame, he maintained a membership with the Tylers' and Bricklayers' Company from 1595 to 1611, from the ages of twenty-three to thirty-nine, suggesting that he may have returned to manual labor in times of trouble. This affiliation also provided him with citizenship and social stability. In 1618, at the age of forty-six, he was received in Edinburgh as a "Burges" and "Guild brother", indicating that he still maintained ties to the guild, a fact that highlights the importance of artisan training in his life.
The Guild was an association of merchants or artisans in medieval Europe, created to regulate activities, ensure the quality of products, and protect the interests of its members. They controlled prices, trained apprentices, and defended collective rights, influencing the local economy.
Early Career as a Playwright
Jonson's experience of the theatre began early, through regular performances of Latin plays at school, particularly comedies by Plautus and Terence, which he enjoyed. These school performances had a lasting influence on his work, and he referred to them in later plays such as The Staple of News (1626) and The Magnetic Lady (1632).
Early in his career, Ben Jonson may have worked as an actor in a travelling company, possibly the Pembroke Company, playing the role of Hieronymus in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy , a play that influenced his later work. Teasers of this role appear in Thomas Dekker's play Satiromastix , suggesting that Jonson had had this experience in his youth. Philip Henslowe, theatre manager, hired Ben Jonson in 1601 and 1602 to add material to Kyd's play, although the authorship of these additions is uncertain.
These formative early years gave Jonson a solid grounding in both literature and drama, preparing him to become one of the most important literary figures of his time. His education and connections at Westminster School were essential to his development as a poet and playwright in a career that would lead to lasting success and recognition.
Political Troubles Arising from the Stage
In 1594, aged twenty-two, Ben Jonson married Anne Lewis, suggesting that he was already involved in the Bankside theatre scene. His earliest surviving play, The Case is Altered, was performed in 1597 by the Pembroke Company. Influenced by Plautus, it dealt with themes of reunion and cross-courtship.
In the same year, Jonson collaborated with Thomas Nashe on The Isle of Dogs, a controversial play that satirized members of the Court, which resulted in the closure of London theatres and the imprisonment of Jonson and other actors. Accused of "dishonorable and rebellious behavior", Jonson was arrested but released in October 1597, aged twenty-five.
Despite the order to close the theatres, the Lord Admiral's Men returned to perform, while the Pembroke Company was disbanded. Henslowe attempted to employ Jonson, who, without officially joining the company, wrote several plays over the next two years, including Hot Anger Soon Cold and Page of Plymouth, many of which have been lost.
He collaborated with playwrights such as Henry Porter, Henry Chettle and Thomas Dekker. Although Francis Meres considered him one of the finest tragic playwrights of his time, no tragedies from this initial period survive. In 1619, at the age of forty-seven, Jonson admitted that half of his comedies had never been printed, many having been lost through collaboration or commissions.
Early Successes
In the autumn of 1598, at the age of twenty-six, Ben Jonson achieved success with Every Man in His Humor, performed by the Lord Chamberlain's Men, Shakespeare's company, which recommended the play and participated in the production. Inspired by Plautus, the play incorporated the medieval medical theory of "humors", representing different human temperaments.
Revised in 1616, the play was set in London and was featured in the folio edition of Jonson's works. The character Bobadilla is compared to Shakespeare's Falstaff for his swashbuckling charm.
During the performance of Every Man in His Humor, Jonson killed the actor Gabriel Spencer in a duel, claiming self-defense. He escaped execution by reciting the "neck verse", a biblical psalm that allowed him to prove his Latin erudition. Nevertheless, he was branded a criminal and had his property confiscated. While imprisoned, he converted to Catholicism, influenced by the Jesuit priest Thomas Wright, with some of his early poems influenced by his new faith.
In 1599, at the age of twenty-seven, Jonson performed Every Man out of His Humor at the newly built Globe Theatre. Inspired by Aristophanes, the play was performed at Court over Christmas. Although the title suggested a sequel, the play was different in tone and structure and was considered a failure, despite being an attempt to please the Queen at the end of the performance.
New Directions in His Career
In search of new audiences, Jonson wrote Cynthia's Revels (1600) and Poetaster (1601) for children's companies, featuring satire and formal experiments. The Fountain of Self-Love, or Cynthia's Revels was performed by the Children of Queen Elizabeth's Chapel at the Blackfriars Theatre between 1600 and 1601.
Although it included praise for the Virgin Queen, references to her persecution of Actaeon and the ambitions of Criticus may have aroused political suspicion, especially in the shadow of the Essex Rebellion. Jonson extensively revised the play for its 1616 Folio publication at the age of forty-four, including satires on the Court that were not in the original version.
Poetaster, performed in 1601, was motivated by personal disagreements, particularly with the playwright John Marston. Jonson portrayed Marston satirically in the character Crispinus, who at the end of the play is forced to spew extravagant words, which Marston himself had used. In response, Thomas Dekker ridiculed Jonson in the comedy Satiromastix, presenting him as a vain and hostile figure.
Admired by the Court
At the beginning of the reign of James I, in 1603, Ben Jonson became the favorite writer of the Court, creating theatrical spectacles and dramatic masques. However, his Catholic faith aroused suspicions that led to temporary imprisonment. In 1605, at the age of thirty-three, he was briefly involved in the Gunpowder Plot but collaborated with the authorities to prevent the plot.
With the accession of James I, Jonson stood out in productions for the Court, such as The Masque of Blackness (1605), in collaboration with the stage designer Inigo Jones. Despite his success, his relationship with Jones generated tensions due to the emphasis given to the sets to the detriment of his poetry. Jonson innovated by introducing the "antimasque", a comic dance that represented the victory of virtue, in productions such as Hymenaei and The Masque of Beauty (1605).
Jonson solidified his position as the leading playwright of James I's reign by creating satire and comedies that criticized politics and society. Volpone (1606), a dark comedy about fraud and corruption, was notable for its unusual ending for a comedy of the time. Other plays, such as Epicene, or The Silent Woman (1609) and The Alchemist (1610), demonstrated his skill at creating surprising and complex plots.
Masques at Court
Ben Jonson came to prominence with his Entertainment at Althorp (1603), performed before James I's queen, and with The Masque of Blackness (1605), at Court. Masques were light entertainments, focused on dancing and singing for royalty.
Together with the designer Inigo Jones, he transformed these performances by introducing dramatic elements and allegorical meanings. His early masques, such as Hymenaei (1606) and The Masque of Queens (1609), were successes. However, his collaboration with Inigo Jones was strained, leading to a break in 1625, at the age of fifty-three.
With the recognition of his play Every Man in His humor, his financial situation improved considerably. Although his tragedies were respected, Ben Jonson is best remembered for his comedies. In addition to being a playwright, he distinguished himself in linguistics by paying close attention to phonetics and grammar. Although he did not attend university, Jonson was recognized as one of the great intellectuals of his time. He received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge.
Theatrical Wars
The so-called "theatre wars" between Ben Jonson and contemporaries such as Marston and Dekker may have been exaggerated and were more a collaboration than a rivalry between the playwrights. The play Poetaster reflects the political tensions of the time, such as the Essex trial, with which Jonson and his Catholic friends identified. Personally, Jonson was seen as a recluse, but his domestic life was complex.
He lived for prolonged periods away from his wife Anne, whom he described ambivalently: "She is a shrew, but honest". Jonson also spent time with influential patrons such as Sir Robert Townshend. His family relationship was intermittent and marked by tragedy, including the loss of children, Benjamin, and the baby Mary.
Troubles with Politics and Religion
Between 1603 and 1612, aged thirty-one to forty, Ben Jonson, despite his position at the Court of James I, faced a series of controversies. In 1604, he and Sir John Roe were expelled from a masque for criticism, demonstrating his conflicts with authority. His play Sejanus (1603–04) caused trouble when he confronted Henry Howard, leading to accusations of "poppery" and treason.
The words "popery" (adjective Popish) and Papism (adjective Papist, also used to refer to an individual) are mainly historical pejorative words in the English language for Roman Catholicism, once frequently used by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox Christians to label their Roman Catholic opponents, who differed from them in accepting the authority of the Pope over the Christian Church.
Sir John Roe (c. 1580–1644) was an English diplomat and explorer, ambassador to Persia and Turkey, and an important trade liaison. He also influenced Parliament by promoting British interest in Eastern trade routes and cultures.
Summoned to the privy council, Jonson had to remove offensive passages from the play. In 1605, Eastward Ho! written with John Marston and George Chapman, landed him in prison for insulting the Scots over the distribution of titles by James I. He was released after pleading for clemency. Jonson also attended a dinner with conspirators in the Gunpowder Plot but helped the government with the investigation.
His Catholic connections continued to cause problems. In 1606, at the age of thirty-four, he and his wife were called to Court on charges of not attending the Church of England. Jonson admitted to religious difficulties, promising to discuss them with theologians. During this time, he lived apart from his wife. Despite tensions with the Court and the Church, Jonson established his career with plays such as Volpone (1606), The Alchemist (1610), Epicoene (1609) and Bartholomew Fair (1614), which criticized human greed and became great successes in the public theatre.
His Works
Ben Jonson was one of the most important English playwrights after Shakespeare, known for his vast influence on theater and literature. In 1616, at the age of forty-four, the first edition of his works was published. Timber: or, Discoveries, with his reflections on poetry and drama, was published posthumously in 1640.
Although a critic of Shakespeare, Jonson also expressed great admiration for him. Jonson was England's first "poet laureate" and was noted for comedies that exposed the vices of society, such as Every Man in His Humor, Volpone, The Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair. His works, neglected after the Restoration, were revived in the 18th century, and influenced later theater.
Literary Characteristics of Ben Jonson
Inspired by Latin authors such as Plautus and the theory of humor, Johnson created a style of comedy that influenced generations. His "comedy of manners" blended realism, satire, and the concept of humor, where characters were defined by a predominant exaggerated trait, generating characteristic humor and temperaments. This comic style influenced playwrights until the 18th century, reaching Romanticism.
Although his works had a realistic tone, Johnson also incorporated fantastical elements, creating situations that bordered on the absurd. He was influenced by medieval theater and had a desire for a more just world, possibly shaped by his conversion to Catholicism while imprisoned. This rigorous moralism appears in many of his works, whose aesthetics often give way to morality.
In addition to theatrical plays, Jonson was an expert in masquerades, festive entertainments with music, dance, and song. His multifaceted genius spanned many genres, including lyric poetry, epigrams, chronicles, letters, translations, and even grammar.
In 1616, at the age of forty-four, Jonson oversaw the publication of his Workers, an anthology of poems, plays, and other writings. In the same year, he received a life pension from the king, becoming England's unofficial national poet. After Shakespeare's death, Jonson was widely recognized as England's greatest living poet.
Later Years
In 1618–19, when he was forty-six or forty-seven, Ben Jonson did a walking tour of Scotland. He was honored in Edinburgh, and upon his return to England he received a Master of Arts degree from Oxford University. Despite his initial success, his popularity at the Court of Charles I wanted. In 1623, his library was destroyed by fire, and his final works were not well received. In 1628, at the age of fifty-six, he suffered a stroke that confined him. In the same year, he was appointed city chronologist, but his final years were difficult.
In the last years of his life, Ben Jonson faced financial difficulties but maintained an active and cheerful social life at home, entertaining friends. He had an additional income of one hundred £ as city chronologist, although his inefficiency in fulfilling the duties of the position resulted in his payments being stopped. His pension from Court increased, along with regular donations of Spanish wine, demonstrating his complex relationship with the theatre, politics, and his personal circumstances, as he struggled to balance ambitions and realities.
Despite the challenges, Jonson remained productive. His final collaboration with Inigo Jones, Love's Triumph through Callipolis and Chloridia, was performed in 1631, at the age of fifty-nine. However, disagreements over the order of their names led Jonson to omit Jones's name and criticize his innovations in a poem. He continued to produce entertainments for King Charles I, incorporating northern traditions and memories of his journey to Scotland. His later comedies, which focused on rural and romantic themes, were not successful.
Farewell to Life
Despite suffering a stroke in 1628, aged fifty-six, Jonson continued to write, but died in 1637, aged sixty-five, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His funeral drew a large crowd, including the nobility. An inscription read: "O Rare Ben Jonson".
In 1638, a volume of memorial verse, Jonsonus Virbius, was published, with tributes from friends. Posthumous recognition included a second edition of his works in 1640–41, solidifying his literary reputation.
Unlike Shakespeare, Jonson excelled in several areas of Renaissance humanism. His ability to publish under his own name represented an advance in copyright. In the seventeenth century, Jonson was considered a leading writer, rivaling Shakespeare, but the comparison became problematic in the eighteenth century.
The modern recovery of his work began with studies by C. H. Herford and others, with praise from authors such as T. S. Eliot and James Joyce, reaffirming his importance in English literature. Bottom of form ֍
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